Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC-476 AD) [PDF] [45qd88940j20] (2023) (2023)

This wonderful reference book on the humanities and arts in history is published by Thomson Gale, a renowned publisher in the field of reference publishing. They brought together a number of humanities scholars and art scholars, each an expert in their respective section of this ensemble. Each volume deals with a different historical period and can stand on its own. This reference work is a compilation of fascinating information on nine disciplines: architecture and design, dance, fashion, literature, music, philosophy, religion, theater and the visual arts, throughout the history of western civilisation, particularly in Europe. The five volumes in this set are divided into the historical periods of Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece and Rome, Medieval Europe, Renaissance and Baroque Europe, and Enlightenment.

ARTES Y U M A N I T I A S

through the centuries

ARTES Y U M A N I T I A S

Through the times of ancient Greece and Rome 1200 BC. 476 AD James Allan Evans, editor

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476) James Allan Evans

Project Editor Rebecca Parks

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CATALOGING DATA IN THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESSIVE PUBLICATIONS Arts and Humanities Through the Ages. p. cm. Including references and index. ISBN 0-7876-5695-X (hardcover set: alkaline paper) — ISBN 0-7876-5696-8 (Renaissance Europe: alkaline paper) — ISBN 0-7876-5697-6 (Baroque period: alkaline paper) — ISBN 0-7876-5698-4 (Ancient Egypt: Paper alc.) — ISBN 0-7876-5699-2 (Ancient Greece: Paper alc.) — ISBN 0-7876-5700-X (Medieval Europe: Alc.paper) 1 .Art - Story. 2. Civilization - History. NX440.A787 2004 700'.9 – dc22

2004010243

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\ CONTENTS

ABOUT THE BOOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix C O N T R I B U T O R S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii TIMETABLE OF WORLDWIDE EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv CHAPTER 1: ARCHITECTURAL AND DESIGN HIGHLIGHTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 TOPICS IN ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN Traditional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Minoan and Mycenaean Architecture . . . . . . . . . 8 Greek Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Etruscan architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Roman architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Late Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture . . . . . 39 MEANINGFUL PEOPLE Adriano. . . . . . . . . . . Pausanias. . . . . . . . . . Plutarch. . . . . . . . . . Suetonius. . . . . . . . . . Vitruvian. . . . . . . . . .

GENERAL DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 DANCE THEMES Dance in prehistoric Greece. war dances. . . . . . . . . . . . female choirs. . . . . . . The dithyramb. . . . . . . . . folk dances. . . . . . . . . . . . theater dance. . . . . Dionysian dance. . . . . . . . Professional dancers. . . . . . Dancing in Rome. . . . . . . . .

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48 52 57 57 60 63 66 69 70

Bedeutende Pessoas Arion. . . . . . . . . . . . Bathyllus von Pylades. Memphis . . . . . Theodora . . . . . .

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75 76 76 77

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DOCUMENTARY SOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 CHAPTER 3: TOP MODE EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

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40 40 41 41 41

DOCUMENTARY SOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 CHAPTER 2: DANCE KEY EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

FASHION TOPICS Fashion in the Minoan period. . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Garments in Classical Greece. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 The Cloak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Textiles from the Greek and Roman Worlds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Dress to impress in Greece and Rome. . . . . 102 The clothes of the Roman women. . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 The Soldier's Clothing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109v

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Important people of Alcibiades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Constantius II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Diogenes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Pindar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Claudius Ptolemy Pythagoras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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229 230 230 231

DOCUMENTARY SOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

DOCUMENTARY SOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

CHAPTER 4: LITERATURE

CHAPTER 6: PHILOSOPHY

IMPORTANT EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

IMPORTANT EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

DIE VERSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

DIE VERSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

THEMES OF LITERATURE The era of the Homeric epic. . . . . . . . . . . The Boeotian School of Epic. . . . . . . . . The Age of Poetry. . . . . . . . . . . . poet for hire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Herodotus, the father of history. . . . . . Thucydides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Story after Thucydides. . . . . . . . . . . . Greek comedy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Greek tragedy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Art of Public Speaking in Greece. . . Greek Literature after Alexander the Great. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roman theater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Latin poetry before Augustus. . . Latin prose writers before the time of Augustus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The golden age of Latin literature under Augustus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Latin Literature of the Silver Age. . . . . . Imperial Greek Literature. . . .

THEMES OF PHILOSOPHY Beginnings of Greek philosophy. . . . . . . . Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans. . . . . . . Xenophanes, Heraclitus and Parmenides. . Empedocles, Anaxagoras and the Atomists The Atomic Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Sophists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Socrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plato. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aristotle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Stoics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other philosophies in the Hellenistic world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Epicurus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Neoplatonism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

MEANINGFUL PEOPLE Aeschylus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tucidids . . . . . Virgil . . . . . . . . . .

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122 126 128 131 133 136 137 138 144 154

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175 175 176 177

MEANINGFUL PEOPLE Aristotle. . . . . . . . . . Nickname . . . . . . . . epicurean . . . . . . . . Plato. . . . . . . . . . . Plotinus. . . . . . . . . such . . . . . . . . . . Zeno of Citium. . . .

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240 240 242 245 247 248 250 254 260 264

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273 275 275 276 277 278 279

DOCUMENTARY SOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 CHAPTER 7: RELIGION

DOCUMENTARY SOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

IMPORTANT EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

CHAPTER 5: MUSIC

DIE VERSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

IMPORTANT EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

TOPICS OF RELIGION The religion of Minoan Crete during the Bronze Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The first Greeks on mainland Greece The Middle Ages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The gods of Olympus. . . . . . . . . . . Other gods besides the twelve. . . . . The underworld and its inhabitants. . heroes and demigods. . . . . . . . . . . . Heracles, the superhero. . . . . . . . . . Discovering the Will of the Gods: Oracles and Prophecy. . . . . . . . . .

GENERAL DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 MUSIC THEMES Musical Instruments . . . . Music in Greek Life. . . . musical education. . . . . . Music in Roman Life. . . Women in early music theory. . . . . . . . .

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189 198 210 212 216 219

MEANINGFUL PEOPLE Aristoxenus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 vi

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287 291 292 294 307 309 312 314

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Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

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The Worship of the Gods: Sacrifices and Temples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The religion of early Rome. . . . . . . . . . The Religion of the Roman Republic. . . The cult of the Roman gods. . . . . . Immigrant religions: the arrival of new cults from the East. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Rise of Christianity. . . . . . . . . . . . Important people Constantino. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . At Pompilius. . . Sao Paulo. . . . . . . . . . Socrates. . . . . . . . . .

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320 323 325 328

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338 339 340 340 342

DOCUMENTARY SOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 CHAPTER 8: THEATER IMPORTANT EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 GENERAL DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 THEATER THEATER Origins of Greek theatre. . . . . . . festivals and theatres. . . . . . . . . Types of Greek Theater. . . . . . . . The beginnings of the Roman theater. Roman theater, playwright and actor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Types of Roman Theater. .

. . . . . . . . . 367 . . . . . . . . . 372

Gente bedeutet Aristophanes. . . . . . . . . Euripides . . . . . . . Livius Andronicus . Lycoris . . . . . . . . Menander . . . . . . Gneo Nevio . . Nero . . . . . . . . . . Titus Maccius Plautus Quintus Roscius Gallus Seneca el Joven

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351 352 357 366

375 376 377 377 378 379 379 380 381 381

Sophocles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Terence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 DOCUMENTARY SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 CHAPTER 9: VISUAL ARTS IMPORTANT EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 GENERAL DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 SUBJECTS OF FINE ARTS Pottery in the Bronze Age . . . . . Early pottery from Greece. . . . The Domain of Athens. . . . . Hellenistic and Roman pottery. . Sculpture in Archaic Greece. . . . Classical sculpture. The Hellenistic Period. . . . . . . . Roman sculpture. . . . . . . . . . . Greek painting. . . . . . . . . . . . . roman painting. . . . . . . . . . . . Photos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mosaics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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392 394 397 402 404 410 420 425 429 435 439 444

Call important people. . . . . . . . . . . Hezekiah. . . . . . . . lysis . . . . . . . Be loyal . . . . . . . . polygnoto . . . . . . Praxiteles . . . . . . . Zeus. . . . . . . . .

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449 450 451 452 453 454 455

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DOCUMENTARY SOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 OTHER REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 MEDIA AND ONLINE SOURCES . . . . 483 A ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

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\ ABOUT THE BOOK

SEE THE HISTORY FROM A DIFFERENT VIEW. There is more to a history lesson than facts about the rise and fall of kings, the conquest of lands, and the great battles fought between nations. While these events are fundamental to the study of any era, cultural aspects are of equal value in understanding the development of societies. Different forms of literature, the philosophical ideas developed, and even the type of clothing worn at a particular time give important clues to a society's values, and when these arts and humanities are studied alongside political and historical events, one obtains a fuller picture. is revealed to this society. This interdisciplinary approach to the study of history is at the heart of the Arts and Humanities Through the Ages project. This seminal work, organized after the successful products American Decades, American Eras and World Eras, aims to provide the reader with an in-depth perspective on a specific era in history through the study of nine distinct arts and humanities : • Architecture and design • Dance • Fashion • Literature • Music • Philosophy • Religion • Theater • Fine arts

Although treated in separate chapters, the connections between these topics are emphasized in the text and through the use of "see also" references to give the reader a broad perspective on the culture of the time. Readers can learn about the influence of religion on literature; explore the close relationships between dance, music and theatre; and see parallel movements in architecture and the visual arts. The development of each of these areas is discussed in the context of important historical events, allowing the reader to see history from a different angle. This perspective is unique to this reference work. Most history books over a period of time give only a cursory look at the arts and humanities in order to provide the broadest historical treatment possible. Reference works on the arts and humanities typically cover only one of them, often spanning multiple time periods, making it difficult to make connections between disciplines and limiting perspective of the impact of the discipline at any given point in time. In Arts and Humanities Through the Ages, each of the nine disciplines is covered in detail in individual chapters, and the focus on one period ensures that the analysis is comprehensive. AUDIENCE AND ORGANIZATION. Arts and Humanities Through the Ages is designed to meet the needs of beginning and intermediate history students. Written by subject matter experts, the material covers a wide range of concepts and masterpieces, but these concepts are built "from the ground up" so that a reader with little or no background can follow. Technical terms and other definitions appear in both ix

About the book

in the text and glossary, and the history of historical facts is also included. The volume's organization facilitates learning at all levels by presenting information in a variety of ways. Each chapter is organized according to the following structure: • Chronology, covering important events in that discipline during that time • Brief description of developments in that discipline during that time • Themes, highlighting the movements, schools of thought and masterpieces that shaped the discipline during that time characterize time • Biographies of prominent figures in the field • Contemporary documentary sources This framework facilitates comparative analysis both between disciplines and between volumes of Arts and Humanities Through the Ages, each covering a different time period. In addition, readers can access additional research opportunities by referring to "Additional References" and "Online and Media Sources" at the end of the volume. Although every effort has been made to only include online sources affiliated with institutions such as museums and universities,

The Sites are subject to change and may become obsolete in the future. PRIMARY DOCUMENTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. In order to provide the most in-depth perspective possible, Arts and Humanities Through the Eras also includes several key documents from the period that offer a first-hand account of the culture of the people who lived there. Letters, poems, essays, epitaphs, and songs are just a few of the many types of documents contained in this volume, each illuminating a particular aspect of the discipline under consideration. The text is complemented by 150 illustrations, maps and line drawings that add a visual dimension to the learning experience. CONTACT INFORMATION. The editors welcome your comments and suggestions as to how the arts and humanities have been improved and improved over the centuries. Send your comments or suggestions to: The Editor Arts and Humanities Through the Eras Thomson Gale 27500 Drake Rd. Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Telephone: (800) 347-4253

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

\ EMPLOYEES

University from 1994 to 1998. At Arizona State, she is the Founder and Co-Director of the Graduate Certificate Program in Classics and teaches courses in Ancient Greek and Latin, as well as Classical Mythology, Culture and Literature. She is a recipient of a Whiting Fellowship and an award from the American Philological Association's Women's Classical Caucus. Professor George's research interests range from Greek and Roman theater and Homer to Xenophon and gender studies in antiquity. His publications include the forthcoming book Prostitutes in Plautus; Articles on Plautus and Aeschylus; and chapters on Ancient Greece and Rome in Mythologies of the World (New York, 2001).

James Allan Evans, editor, received a Ph.D. in Classics from Yale University in 1957 with a minor in Greek and Roman social and economic history. He was a Thomas Day Seymour Fellow at the American School of Classical Studies in Athens, Greece in 1954–1955 and has taught at Wilfrid Laurier University, the University of Texas at Austin, and McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, where he was a professor of history . old. In 1972 he accepted a professorship at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, and taught there until his retirement in 1996. Since his retirement he has been a Visiting Professor of History at the University of Washington, Seattle, and a Special Visiting Professor at Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, Canada, and Whitehead Visiting Professor at the American School of Classical Studies in Athens. He is the author of A Social and Economic History of an Egyptian Temple in Greco-Roman Egypt (Yale Classical Studies, 17, 1961), Procopius (Twayne, 1972), Herodotus (Twayne, 1982), Herodotus, Explorer of the Past: Three Essays (Princeton, 1991), The Age of Justinian: The Circumstances of Imperial Power (Routledge, 1996) and The Empress Theodora: Partner of Justinian (University of Texas Press, 2002). He was also editor of the Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History series (AMS Press) from 1977 to 1996. In 1992 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. He is currently writing a book on Byzantine court intrigues and power games in the Justinian era.

John T. Kirby, Counselor, is Professor of Classics at Purdue University, where he chaired the Classics and Comparative Studies programs. His books include The Rhetoric of Cicero's Pro Cluentio (J.C. Gieben 1990), The Comparative Reader (Chancery Press, 1998), Secret of the Muses Retold (University of Chicago Press, 2000), Classical Greek Civilization (Gale Group, 2001), and A Roman Republic and Empire (Gale Group, 2001). Its websites include the popular CORAX website (www.corax.us), a hypersite offering a comprehensive classic online curriculum. His awards and honors include a Morehead Fellowship, an NEH Fellowship, and teaching honors at departmental, university, state, regional, and national levels.

Lisa Rengo George received a Ph.D. in Classics from Bryn Mawr College in 1997 and has been an Assistant Professor of Classics in the Department of Languages and Literature at Arizona State University since 1999. She was Visiting Assistant Professor of Classics at Skidmore

William H. Peck was educated at Ohio State University and Wayne State University. He was curator of ancient art at the Detroit Institute of Arts for many years, where he was responsible for Greek, Roman, Etruscan, Egyptian, and ancient Xi art.

Employees

Near East. He has taught art history at Cranbrook Academy of Art, the University of Michigan and Wayne State University. He currently teaches at the Detroit College of Creative Studies. His books include Drawings from Ancient Egypt (Thames and Hudson, 1978), The Detroit Institute of Arts: A Brief History (Detroit Institute of Arts), and Splendors of Ancient Egypt (Detroit Institute of Arts). He has published scholarly and popular science articles on Greek and Roman sculpture, as well as Egyptian art and archaeology. He has many years of archaeological experience, resulting in a direct familiarity with ancient architectural techniques. His travels throughout Europe, North Africa and the Middle East gave him the opportunity to study first-hand the most important monuments in the history of architecture. He has been responsible for a number of exhibitions at the Detroit Institute of Arts and has also lectured on art and archeology in the United States and Canada.

Nancy Sultan received a Ph.D. in Comparative Literature from Harvard University in 1991. She joined Illinois Wesleyan College in 1993, where she is Professor and Director of Greek and Roman Studies and Chair of the Department of Modern and Classical Languages and Literature. His academic interests lie in the fields of Hellenic cultural studies, oral poetics, ethnomusicology and gender studies. Relevant publications include a book, Exile and the Poetics of Loss in Greek Tradition (Rowman and Littlefield, 1999), and several articles on Greek musical traditions: Private Speech, Public Pain: The Power of Women's Laments in Greek Poetry & Tragedy, in Rediscovery of the Muses: Musical Traditions of Women, ed. K. Marshall (Northeastern, 1992), "Women in 'Akritic' Song: The Hero's 'Other' Voice", in The Journal of Modern Greek Studies (1991), and "New Light on the Function of 'Borrowed Notes' in Ancient Greek Music: A Look at Islamic Parallels”, in Journal of Musicology (1988).

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

\ E R A GENERAL SUMMARY

THE BEGINNING. The history of Greece and Rome spans over 2,000 years, from the prehistoric Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations to the early Byzantine Empire, which continued the language and culture of Greece, albeit now in an environment steeped in Christianity. History is divided into more or less well-defined periods. There was the Bronze Age: the age of the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete and the Mycenaean civilization on the mainland. Then, for reasons modern historians do not understand, came an era of turmoil and invasion that affected the entire eastern Mediterranean. The invaders, who came to plunder and burn, reached as far as Egypt, where Egyptian sources recorded their attacks and called them "sea peoples". In Greece, the years after 1200 BC are they are marked by destruction and migration. Refugees from Greece made their way to the west coast of Asia Minor and nearby islands, where they established settlements that grew into prosperous cities. BREAKDOWN AND RECOVERY. What followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization was a period known as the "Dark Ages" because little is known about it except what archaeological remains reveal. However, it was a time when Greece's distinctive political structure developed: the polis, or city-state, an urban center with a defensible citadel called the Acropolis - the name simply meaning "the city on the hill" - which was encircled across the territory of the city-state. A great polis like Athens grew through the amalgamation of a number of small states until the entire region known as Attica became Athenian territory. Another development was the invention of the

Greek alphabet, using letters borrowed from Phoenicia, and another was the beginning of literature when oral storytellers and bards told tales about the gods and about the men and women who lived in the Mycenaean period, now part of the Mist. Past. THE ARCHAIC TIME. The "Dark Ages" easily merged into the Archaic Period, which began in the 6th century B.C. ended. gave way to the fifth. Poets now wrote their poems and thinkers began to speculate about the nature of the universe. The twelve Ionian cities founded on the west coast of Asia Minor and in the Dodecanese Islands became brilliant centers of Greek culture. In one of them, Miletus, Greek philosophy was born with such thinkers as Thales, Anaximanders, and Anaximenes, and in another, Ephesus, the Ionian-style temple of Artemis, was the largest temple in the Greek world. At the end of the period, the Greek cities of the eastern Aegean fell under the rule, first of the Lydian Empire based in Sardis, and then of the Persians, who conquered Rome in 546 BC. Overthrew the last Lydian king, Croesus. Persian power was advancing, and the historical event that marked the end of the Archaic era and ushered in the Classic period was the invasion of Greece by the Persian Empire in 490–479 BC. and his defeat. THE CLASSICAL TIME. The coalition of Greeks that repelled the Persian offensive was led by Sparta, but it was the Athenian fleet that made victory possible, and Athens entered the Classic period with renewed confidence. The government of Athens was democratic and its culture aroused the admiration of even its enemies. and xiii

Summary of the era

Athens had many enemies as it dominated the Aegean with its fleet and, guided by the policies of an imperialist statesman named Pericles, transformed an alliance created to defend itself against a new Persian aggression into an empire it honored . The tribute funded a building program that made Athens the most beautiful city in Greece. The last two decades of the fifth century B.C. were consumed by wars between Imperial Athens and an alliance led by Sparta, and Athens lost. The brief golden age was over, although the classical period lasted until Alexander the Great changed the face of the Greek world with a series of campaigns that radically expanded Greece's territory. THE HELLENISTIC AGE. Alexander's conquests marked the beginning of the Hellenistic world. Alexander's generals created kingdoms for themselves and welcomed Greek immigrants. Royal capitals such as Antioch, Pergamum and Alexandria competed with Athens as centers of culture. In Alexandria, the Egyptian kings built a large library and turned it into a study center for Greek intellectuals. But in the West Rome was expanding. His greatest rival, Carthage, was at the end of the 3rd century BC. humiliated. and in the years that followed, the Romans moved to the eastern Mediterranean. The last Hellenistic kingdom to fall to Rome was Egypt, in 30 BC. Cleopatra, the last monarch descended from one of Alexander's generals, committed suicide. THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. The history of Rome is divided into two periods: the republican period, when it ceased to be one

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small town near the mouth of the Tiber to rule the Mediterranean, and the Imperial Period when the Emperors ruled a vast region stretching from Britain in the west to Syria and Iraq in the east. The Roman Republic was traditionally founded in 509 BC. founded. when a dynasty of Etruscan kings were expelled and their place taken by elected magistrates called consuls. The republic expanded, first dominating Latium, the Latin-speaking area around Rome, and then extending its dominion into Italy and beyond Italy to the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. As Rome expanded its rule, it expanded its citizenship until finally, in AD 212, long after republican government gave way to emperors, everyone in the Roman Empire became a citizen of Rome. THE IMPERIAL ROMAN AGE. As the empire expanded, the incompetence of the narrow ruling class that dominated the republican government led to its downfall, in 30 BC. C., Octavius, adopted son of Julius Caesar, became lord of Rome and set about establishing a new governmental structure. It retained the insignia of the Republic but placed power firmly in the hands of the Emperor, or Commander-in-Chief. Octavian adopted the title of Augustus, which was bestowed upon his successors, and the empire prospered for over two centuries before the tide turned against it. However, the last emperor in the west did not abdicate until AD 476, and in the east an emperor continued to rule Constantinople until the Turks conquered the city in 1453.

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

\ TIMETABLE OF WORLDWIDE EVENTS By James Allan Evans, Michael S. Allen and Patricia D. Rankine

f. 2000 B.C. Greek speakers migrate to Greece. around 1900 BC During the Protopalatial period from –c. 1700 BC BC Minoan civilization in Crete, large palaces are built in various places, mainly Knossos, Mallia and Phaestos. around 1700 BC This is the New Palace period in Crete - c. 1450 BC when the Minoan civilization reaches its peak and ends with further destruction of the palaces. around 1600 BC A new dynasty at Mycenae in mainland Greece began burying their dead in tombs with rich offerings, and Mycenae gave its name to the civilization now developing in mainland Greece. around 1450 BC The palace of Knossos on Crete is again inhabited by Greek speakers. around 1450 BC The Mycenaean civilization is in its –c. 1200 BC BC height; his merchant ships cross the eastern Mediterranean and reach Sicily and Italy. approx. 1250 BC The Mycenaean Greeks attack and destroy Troy. around 1200 BC BC Mycenaean palaces fall victim to -c. 1150 BC Incursions of the "sea peoples".

around 1150 BC BC New immigrants appear in Greece. -W 1000 BC Greece emerges from this period, with the Dorians controlling the eastern Peloponnese, Crete and the south-western part of Asia Minor including Rhodes; the Ionians controlled Attica, the island of Euboea, and the west-central coast of Asia Minor, including Coastal Island; and the Aeolians controlled Lesvos and part of the north coast of Asia Minor. 950 BC BC vases are decorated with geometric motifs: 700 BC swallows with circles, straight lines, meanders, and we find abstract representations in the sculpture. This is known as the geometric period. approx. 900 BC BC Sparta is founded when four Doric Greek villages in the valley of Eurotas, Limnai, Mesoa, Kynosura and Pitane merge into a single settlement. The natives of the region become helots, i.e. serfs. 814 BC The Phoenician city of Tire founded Carthage in present-day Tunisia. approx. 800 BC Indian Aryans continue their earlier c. 550 BC BC Expansion into the Asian subcontinent, settlement westwards along the Ganges xv

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Apartment. During this period the first of the Upanishads, the most important mystical and philosophical writings of Hinduism, was written. 798 BC The kingdom of Israel led by Joash goes to war—782 B.C.E. with the Aramaic armies of Ben Hadad II regaining territories formerly lost by Hazael of Damascus; Judah, including its capital Jerusalem, also later falls to Joash and loses its independence. 776 BC The Olympic Games are established and we have a record of winners from that date to 217 AD 770 BC. The Chou move their capital to Loyang, marking the beginning of the Eastern Chou dynasty. 753 BC According to traditional sources, the city of Rome was founded by Romulus, the son of a princess from Alba Longa and the god Mars. approx. 750 BC The Greeks spread around -550 BC. Mediterranean in this period, establishment of colonies in Sicily, southern Italy, southern France, eastern Spain, Libya, northern Aegean and Black Sea region. 743 BC Chr. Tiglath-Pileser III. of Assyria launches his first major campaign against neighboring states to the west and besieges Urartian allies at Arpad. w. 740 BC BC Sparta under King Theopompus c–c. 720 BC Chr. asks Messenia, almost twice as large and reduces the Messenians to helots. 731 BC Revolution breaks out in Babylon; Tiglath-pileser III returns from his western campaign to overthrow him. 722 BC BC Samaria falls to Assyria; Shalmaneser V is succeeded by his son Sargon II, on whose orders thousands of Israelites are taken captive to Mesopotamia. w. 720 BC In China, the Hung Kou (Great Ditch) is built, connecting a tributary of the Huai with the Yellow River. XVI

709 BC Sargon II of Assyria sends Merodachbaladan into exile and declares himself king in his place. approx. 700 BC After a long and indecisive siege of Jerusalem, Hezekiah agrees to pay tribute to Sennacherib; Sidon and Tire also submit to vassaldom under Assyria. Celtic peoples begin to settle in Spain. w. 681 BC Esarhadon, son and heir of Sennacherib, suppresses a rebellion instigated by one of his brothers who had murdered their father. Azardon becomes king of Assyria. 668 BC Ashurbanipal succeeds Esarhaddon as king of Assyria; A patron of Assyrian and Babylonian culture, he compiles a vast library of tablets narrating literature, history, science, and religion. 663 BC Assyria conquers Thebes, defeats Tanouatamon and ends Ethiopian rule in Egypt. Psamético I becomes pharaoh of the new dynasty; The so-called Saita Renaissance, a renaissance in religion, art and literature, began with the model of the Old Kingdom of Egypt. w. 660 BC The Messenians try to get rid of -c. 640 BC their Spartan overlords with the help of neighboring Achaia, Elis and Argos. Sparta barely suppressed the revolt and thereafter became a militaristic state to maintain its dominance over its helots. 657 BC Cypselus becomes a "tyrant" (dictator) of Corinth, supplanting the aristocratic clan of Bacchiads who controlled the Corinthian government. The tyranny of Cypselus and his descendants lasted until 580 BC. 642 BC According to tradition, Ancus Martius becomes king of Rome; During his reign he builds a bridge over the Tiber. w. 624 B.C. BC Draco writes the first written law book of Athens.

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w. 616 B.C. Tarquinius Priscus, the first of a series of Etruscan rulers, becomes king in Rome; Under his rule the Cloaca Maxima (a canal through Rome), the Temple of Jupiter Capitoline and the Circus Maximus (an arena for chariot racing) were built. 611 BC BC Nabopolassar leads his armies against Harran, where Assuruballit II attempted to rally his Assyrian forces; However, with his Median allies absent, Nabopolassar is unable to capture the Assyrian stronghold. 609 BC The remaining Assyrian armies, allied with Egypt, attempt to recapture Harran, but to no avail. Neko II succeeds Psammetic I in Egypt and directs his armies north to aid Assyria. 608 BC On his northward march, Neko II meets Josiah of Judah at Megiddo. Josiah is killed and Judah conquered, but the Egyptian army is prevented from reaching their Assyrian allies in time to save them from defeat. 597 BC CE Babylonian armies besiege Jerusalem. When it falls after nearly three months, thousands of Israelites are taken captive to Babylon. 594 BC CE Solon is appointed sole archon, enacting the necessary economic and constitutional reforms and laying the foundations for later Athenian democracy. 586 BC BC Jerusalem falls to Nebuchadnezzar, who destroys the city and takes a second wave of Jewish captives to Babylon. This defeat marks the end of Judah as a nation. 578 BC Rome, under the reign of Servius Tullius, –534 BC. Join the Latin League. 560 BC Chr. Peisistratos makes the first of three attempts to become tyrant of Athens. 559 BC Cyrus the Great takes power in Anshan, later Persia. w. 551 BC CE Confucius is born.

approx. 550 BC BC Celtic tribes begin to settle in Ireland, Scotland and England. Lao-tse, traditionally the author of the Tao Te Ching and founder of Taoism, thrives in China. 547 BC Cyrus II of the Achaemenid royal house of the Persians, who were vassals of the Medes, overthrew the king of the Medes, Astyaages, and united Medes and Persians under his rule. 547 BC Cyrus, king of Persia, overthrows Croesus, –546 BC. King of Lydia and takes the Greek cities on the coast of Asia Minor into his kingdom. 546 BC Pesistratus finally manages to become tyrant of Athens and dies in 527 BC. his son Hippias assumes power as a tyrant. 539 BC C.E. Cyrus the Great conquers the city of Babylon and the exiled Jews are freed from their captivity. 534 BC Chr. Peisistratos establishes the great festival of the Dionysian city in Athens. Thespis des Deme, that is, of the people, of Icaria wins first prize in the tragedy contest. 533 BC CE Cyrus the Great invades India and collects tribute from the cities of the Indus Valley. According to Herodotus, it establishes the twentieth of the Persian satrapies or provinces in Gandhara. 520 BC The Jewish Temple in Jerusalem is rebuilt - 515 BC. at the urging of the prophet Haggai. 510 BC A new temple of Apollo is completed at Delphi, aided by a generous donation from the Athenian family of Alcmaeonidae, gaining favor with Delphi. Roman tradition dates the exile of Tarquinius Superbus ("Tarquinius the Proud"), the last king of Rome, to this year. Two elected consuls replace the king as the chief officials of the Roman state.

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At the request of the oracle of Delphi, Sparta forces the tyrant Hippias to leave Athens. 509 BC The Roman Republic is founded according to traditional stories; Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus (Lucretia's husband) are made consuls. The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was built on Capitol Hill. 509 BC Under the leadership of Cleisthenes, who died –507 BC. Athens belongs to the Alcmaeonidae family and establishes a democratic form of government based on equality before the law. 508 BC In the Dionysian city of Athens, a dithyrambic song and dance contest is held to counteract the tragedy, now turned into a dramatic performance. approx. 500 BC The Bantu peoples of Africa begin their migrations. Iron is imported into China. The West African Nok culture begins to flourish. A rebellion against Persian rule breaks out in Ionia, led by Aristagoras of Miletus, and Athens and Eretria send aid to the rebels. 496 BC The Roman dictator Postumius defeated the Latins at the Battle of Lake Regillus. The Latin armies were led by Lars Porsenna, who was allied with Tarquinius Superbus, the exiled king of Rome. 494 BC The Ionian rebel fleet is crushed by the Persian navy at the Battle of Ark and the embers of the revolt are quickly quenched. 490 BC The Athenians, with the help of their small neighbor Plataea, defeat a Persian expeditionary force led by Datis and Artaphrenes at the Battle of Marathon. 480 BC Xerxes I of Persia is defeated by the Greek army at Salamis. Celtic tribes that used to roam the British Isles in small numbers are now arriving in droves. xviii

479 BC The Persian army led by Mardonius is defeated at the Battle of Plataea and in the same year the Persian fleet is destroyed at the Battle of Mycale. 477 BC CE The Delian League is formed under Athena's leadership to counter future Persian expansionism. 472 BC The tragic poet Aeschylus produces The Persians, the oldest surviving tragedy. w. 450 BC BC Rome receives its first written code, the Law of the Twelve Tables. 449 BC Hostilities with Persia end, but Athens forces the allies of the Delian League to continue paying their annual tribute to the League's treasury, which Athens now uses to fund the building program of Pericles. 447 BC BC Work begins on the Temple of Athena Parthenos (the Parthenon) on the Acropolis of Athens. 445 BC Athens makes a thirty-year peace with Sparta, recognizing Spartan hegemony in the Peloponnese, and Athens and Sparta agree not to interfere in each other's spheres of influence. 444 BC Chinese mathematicians calculate the length of the year exactly to 3651/4 days. 443 BC After the ostracism - ten years of exile - 429 B.C. Until the end of his last serious political opponent, Thucydides son of Melesias, Pericles held the undisputed power in Athens and was elected year after year to the Committee of Ten Generals. Its imperialist policies put Athens on a collision course with Sparta. 437 BC CE Construction of the monumental entrance to the Acropolis of Athens (the "Propylaea") begins and is completed five years later. 432 BC The Parthenon is completed and inaugurated in Athens. 431 BC The Peloponnesian War breaks out between Athens and the Spartan alliance.

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Euripides' tragedy Medea is performed in Athens.

his fleet to death for failing to save the shipwrecked.

430 BC The plague broke out in Athens and within four years a third of the population died, including Pericles.

The tragic poets Sophocles and Euripides die this year.

427 BC the philosopher Plato is born. 425 BC The Athenian comedian Aristophanes produces his Acharnians, an anti-war comedy which is the first of his surviving works. 421 BC The Fifty Years' Peace, known as the "Peace of Nikias" after the Athenian who negotiated it, is concluded between Athens and Sparta, restoring the status quo ante. Construction of the temple on the Athenian Acropolis known as the Erechtheum begins. 415 BC BC Athens undertakes a major expedition to Sicily, which is completely destroyed two years later. 413 BC In the last phase of the Peloponnese - 404 BC. War, Sparta occupies Decelea in Athenian territory and uses it as a base to ravage Athenian territory and encourage slaves to flee. Persia grants Sparta subsidies to build a fleet to challenge the Athenian navy. 411 BC Athens introduces an oligarchic government to replace its democracy, but the Athenian army refuses to accept the new constitution and democracy is restored within a year. w. 410 BC Celtic tribes, later known to the Romans as Gauls, begin their migration south across the Alps.

405 BC In Sicily, the Carthaginians conquer Acragas, today's Agrigento, and advance to Syracuse. Greek cities unite under Dionysius I, tyrant of Syracuse, and resist Carthaginian advance. The Spartan fleet commanded by Lysander captures the Athenian fleet at Aegospotami (River of the Goat). 404 BC Athens surrenders and Sparta takes over the Athenian Empire except for the Greek cities on the coast of Asia Minor, which are returned to Persia. Sparta controlled the cities of their empire by establishing within them pro-Spartan oligarchic governments supported by garrisons under Spartan governors called harmosts. 403 BC Thrasybulus restores democracy in Athens with the consent of the Spartan king Pausanias. 401 BC After the death of the Persian king Darius II, his son Artaxerxes II ascends the throne, but his younger brother Cyrus rebels, recruits an army comprising ten thousand Greek mercenaries under the command of a Spartan commander, Clearchus, and advances. the heart of Mesopotamia to Cunaxa, where Cyrus died fighting Artaxerxes. The Greek mercenary force, led by the Athenian Xenophon, retreats north to the Black Sea coast. 399 BC Chr. Socrates is sentenced to death because he is accused of corrupting the Athenian youth and introducing new gods.

409 BC In Sicily, the Carthaginians launch an offensive and destroy the cities of Selinus and Himera.

399 BC 394 BC Sparta resumes war against Persia to liberate it. the Ionian cities, but with limited success.

406 BC BC Athens achieves its last war victory over the Spartan fleet at the Arginusae Islands, but deposes the commanders

396 BC In Italy, after a ten-year war, Rome captures and destroys the city of Veii, further up the Tiber from Rome,

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which had blocked Rome's northward expansion.

dominates and continues the war between Thebes and Sparta.

395 BC A coalition of Athens, Corinth, Thebes, –387 BC. and Argos, subsidized by Persia, fights Sparta and in 394 a Spartan fleet off the island of Cnidus is defeated by a Persian fleet led by the Athenian Conon, who then sails to Athens and rebuilds the fortifications destroyed at the end of the century Peloponnesian War .

Thebes, led by Pelopidas and Epaminondas, intended to unite all of Boeotia under their leadership.

That same year, Sparta defeats an anti-Spartan coalition at Coronea and Persia and Sparta resolve their differences as they see signs of a revival in Athenian power. 390 BC The Romans are defeated at the Battle of Allia by invading Gauls led by Brennus. Then the city of Rome is besieged and only the Capitol does not fall. After the Gauls conquered, the Latins and Hernicians ended their alliance with Rome. 387 BC In Italy, Rome is sacked by a tribe of Gauls (Celts) who besiege the Capitol and only leave with much booty after receiving a ransom. Athens and Sparta sign a peace brokered by the Persian king, called the "Peace of the King" or "Peace of Antalcidas" in honor of the Spartan admiral who was the chief negotiator. Persia retains control of the Greek cities in Asia Minor but guarantees the freedom of the remaining Greek cities. 386 BC BC Plato founds the Academy in Athens, where he will teach for the rest of his life. 382 BC In a surprise attack, Sparta occupied Cadmeia, that is, the Acropolis of Thebes, and established a garrison there. w. 380 BC In Rome, after the sack of the Gauls, a fortification wall, the so-called Serbian Wall, was built around the Seven Hills that form the core of the city. 379 BC A squad of young Thebans surprises the Spartan garrison at Cadmeia y xx

377 BC C.E. Athens establishes a new sixty-member autonomous naval alliance to resist Spartan imperialism. 371 BC CE Sparta and Athens sign a general peace, but Thebes does not sign it because the terms of the peace would force it to reverse the unification of Boeotia. Therefore, Sparta orders King Cleombrotus, who had an army in Boeotia, to attack Thebes, and the Theban army under Epaminondas inflicts a catastrophic defeat on the Spartans at the Battle of Leuktra. 371 BC CE Thebes, under the leadership of Pelopidas - 362 B.C. CE and Epaminondas, is Greece's most important military power. A Theban army liberates Messinia from Spartan control and deprives Sparta of half of its territory. 367 BC The young Aristotle arrives in Athens and becomes a student of the philosopher Plato. He remains a member of Plato's Academy for twenty years until Plato's death. 362 BC Thebes defeats a Spartan-Athenian alliance at the Battle of Mantinea, but the Theban statesman and military genius Epaminondas is killed in battle. 359 BC Philip II becomes king of Macedonia after the death of his brother. 358 BC In Italy, the Samnites, a warlike Italic people of south-central Italy, extend their territory to the west coast of Italy and form a league. 356 BC In defense against the Huns, China builds its first wall along its borders; Along with others to be built later, it will serve as part of the Great Wall. 347 BC CE Plato dies and is succeeded as director of the Academy by Speusippus, son of Plato's sister.

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343 BC In Italy the war—the so-called First Samnites—began in 341 B.C.E. CE War: Outbreak between Rome and the Samnites, an Italic people of south-central Italy, provoked by an alliance made between Rome and Capua. The war ends with a peace compromise. 342 BC Aristotle goes to Macedonia to tutor the young Alexander the Great, the son of King Philip II of Macedonia. 340 BC The Latin League, a coalition of cities in –338 B.C. Latium allies itself with Rome, attempts to break the alliance, and Rome, with the help of the Samnites, crushes their Separatist revolt, dissolving the Latin League and instead forming separate alliances with individual Latin cities. 339 BC Chuang-tzu, an important interpreter of the Tao - 329 B.C.E. ism and celebrated literary stylist, thrives in China. 338 BC At Chaeroneia, Greece, Philip of Macedon defeats the combined armies of Athens and Thebes. Thebes is severely punished; Athens sticks to lighter terms. 337 BC C.E. League of Corinth founded under the auspices of Philip of Macedonia. The League appoints Philip as leader and supreme general, grants all cities autonomy, and decides to declare war on Persia to end the Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC. to avenge. 336 BC Chr. Philip is murdered and his son Alexander the Great becomes king. 335 BC Thebes rebels against Macedonia upon learning of Philip's death and is defeated by Alexander, who enslaves the citizens of Thebes and destroys the city, saving only the poet Pindar's house. Aristotle returns to Athens and founds the Lyceum, where he spends the next eighteen years teaching, writing, and researching. 334 BC BC Alexander starts his campaign against the Persian Empire, defeats the Persian satraps of Asia Minor at the Granicus River in May and follows his victory.

Capture of the Greek cities along the coast of Asia Minor, then attack east through Caria and Phrygia to Cilicia. He replaces the Persian satraps with Macedonian officials to govern the conquered territory. 333 BC Chr. Alexander defeats the Persian king Darius III. Codomannus at the Battle of Issus. He rejects an offer of peace from Darius and proceeds to conquer Syria. 332 BC After a siege of seven months, Alexander captures the Phoenician city of Tire and then advances along the Mediterranean coast into Egypt, where he spends the winter. There he visits the shrine of Zeus Ammon in the oasis of Siwa, where he is hailed as the son of Zeus by the high priest. 331 BC Antipater, whom Alexander had left as his lieutenant in Macedonia, suppresses a Spartan uprising in Greece. Alexander defeats Darius III. at the Battle of Gaugamela, forcing him to flee the battlefield. The satrap of Babylon, Mazaeus, surrenders and joins Alexander, who confiscates the Persian treasure in Babylon and Susa. Alexander the Great founds the city of Alexandria in Egypt. 330 BC Alexander conquers and burns the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis, marking the conclusion of the Panhellenic campaign to avenge Xerxes' invasion of Greece in 480 BC. 330 BC BC Alexander pursues Darius, who is captured –329 BC. Prisoner of the satrap Bessus, who arrives too late to prevent him from being assassinated by Bessus, who now assumes the title of king. Alexander proclaims himself successor to the Achaemenid line of Persian kings. One of Alexander's generals, Philotas, is believed to be mistakenly implicated in an alleged conspiracy against Alexander and is executed; to be on the safe side, also Alexander

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he orders the death of Philotas' father Parmenio, who had served under Alexander's father Philip of Macedonia. 329 BC BC Alexander conquers eastern Iran. Bessus is captured and executed. 328 BC Chr. Alexander moves into Sogdiana, where he meets and marries Roxane, the daughter of a baron of Sogdiana. Alexander introduces Persian court ceremonial, including proskynesis, i.e. bowing to the king, which Macedonians and Greeks in his entourage oppose. 327 BC The so-called "page conspiracy" is suppressed and Alexander's court historian Callisthenes, Aristotle's nephew, is executed. Alexander advances through modern Afghanistan into India. 327 BC BC Alexander the Great invades India. –325 BC 326 BC A second war breaks out between Rome and the Samnites in Italy. Alexander defeats the Indian Rajah Porus on the Hydaspes River in northern India, then advances until a rebellion on the Hyphasis River forces him to turn back. He goes as far as the mouth of the Indus, where he builds a fleet and embarks part of his army on it and sends it back along the coast to the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, while himself leading the bulk of his army. through the desert regions of Gedrosia and Carmania to Persepolis. 324 BC At Susa, Alexander pursues a plan to create a mixed Macedonian-Persian elite by marrying eighty of his officers to Asian women and arranging the marriages of ten thousand of his soldiers to Asian women: he himself marries the daughter of Darius III. xiii

After a mutiny at Opis, Alexander reorganizes the empire, giving equal rights to Persians and Macedonians. Currency is standardized across the empire, laying the foundation for the great economic expansion in the Hellenistic world. 323 BC Chr. Alexander dies on the eve of a new expedition in Babylon. Perdiccas, to whom Alexander gave his signet ring on his deathbed, becomes regent and guardian of kings: Alexander's half-brother Arrhidaeus and Alexander's unborn child: Roxana is pregnant when Alexander dies. Alexander's generals, the so-called Diadochoi (successors), conquer dominions for themselves: Antipater, left to Macedonia in Alexander's absence, conquers Macedonia and Greece, Antigonos the One-Eyed conquers Phrygia and Lycia, Ptolemy, Egypt and Lysimachus, Thrace, while Eumenes, Alexander's Secretary, supporting Perdiccas. Learning of Alexander's death, Greece attempts to throw off the Macedonian yoke in what is known as the Lamian War, but Antipater crushes the uprising. Athenian democracy is suppressed, anti-Macedonian leaders are assassinated, and Demosthenes commits suicide to avoid capture. 321 BC In the Second Samnite War, Rome suffers a humiliating setback at Caudine Forks, but does not accept defeat. The Via Appia (Appian Way) was built south of Rome as a supply line for the Roman army. 320 BC In the spring, Perdiccas invades Egypt with an army to drive out Ptolemy, but is killed by his own troops attempting to cross the Nile Delta. The Diadochoi hold a conference at Triparadeisos ("Three Parks") in Syria .

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Antipater replaces Perdiccas as guardian of kings, Ptolemy remains in Egypt, Antigonus the One-Eyed with Antipater's son Cassander on his staff is given command of the Macedonian forces in Asia tasked with eliminating Eumenes, and Seleucus is given the satrapy of Babylon. 317 BC Alexander the Great's mother, Olympias, invades Macedonia with an army from Epirus to defend Alexander IV, son of Alexander and Roxana, and executes Philip Arridae, his wife Eurydice, and hundreds of his followers. Cassander invades Macedonia to oust Olympias. 317 BC Chr. Cassander calls the Aristotelian -307 BC. 400 BC philosopher, Demetrius of Phalerum, to rule Athens as his deputy. Driven out by Demetrius Poliorcetes, he goes to Egypt, where he advises Ptolemy on the construction of the Great Library of Alexandria. 316 BC Chr. Eumenes has to return to the eastern satrapies, leads an indecisive battle at Paraetacene and is then betrayed and executed by Antigonus. 316 BC Antigonus the One-Eyed now in power – 301 BC from Asia after the death of Eumenes and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes (City Siege) attempt to take over Alexander's empire. 312 BC Ptolemy of Egypt, to thwart the ambitions of Antigonus the One-Eyed, restores Seleucus as satrap of Babylon. The Seleucid dynasty counts this date as the first year of the Seleucid era, still in use in the Middle East long after the dynasty's fall. 307 BC Chr. Demetrius, son of Antigonus the One-Eyed, attempts to conquer Rhodes; The siege earns him the nickname "Poliorcetes" (Besiegers of the Cities) due to the siege engines he and his engineers designed to breach Rhodes' defenses.

To commemorate their victory, the Rhodians built the Colossus of Rhodes, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. 304 BC In BC, Rome emerges victorious from the long and arduous Second Samnite War and annexes Campania, the region between Rome and Naples, preventing further expansion of the Samnite League. 301 BC BC Lysimachus, Cassander, and Seleucus eliminate Antigonus the One-Eyed at the Battle of Ipsos, although Demetrius Poliorcetes escapes. Four Hellenistic kingdoms emerge: Macedonia under Cassander, Thrace and Asia Minor under Lysimachus, Egypt and Palestine under Ptolemy, and the heartland of Persia and northern Syria under Seleucus. 298 BC The Third Samnite War breaks out in Italy. Rome faces a coalition of Samnites, Etruscans, Celts, Sabines, Lucanians and Umbrians. 297 BC In Macedonia, Cassander dies, and his death is followed by disorder as Pyrrhus of Epirus, Demetrius Poliorcetes, and Cassander's own sons vie for the Macedonian throne. 295 BC In Italy, Rome wins a victory over a coalition of Etruscans and Celts at the Battle of Sentinum, and the Etruscans make a separate peace with Rome. 290 BC BC Rome makes peace with the Samnites, who now have to serve in Rome's army. 286 BC In Greece, Lysimachus adds Macedonia to his kingdom. 285 BC Rome secures 282 BC. control of central Italy. Victory over the Celtic tribe of the Senones. 282 BC War breaks out between Rome and the Greek city of Taranto, now Taranto, as Rome invades Taranto's sphere of influence. 281 BC In Asia Minor, Seleucus defeats Lysimachus at the Battle of Corupedion and takes over his kingdom, including Macedonia.

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280 BC Tarentum brings Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, with an army of mercenaries to Italy, where he defeats the Romans at the Battle of Heraclea. Seleucus is killed by Ptolemy the Thunderbolt, a renegade son of King Ptolemy I of Egypt. Ptolemy becomes king of Macedonia, while Antiochus, son of Seleucus, inherits his father's kingdom in Asia. 279 BC A horde of Celts, also known as the Gauls, invade Macedonia, defeating and killing Ptolemy the Lightning, leaving Macedonia without a king. The Celtic horde advances into Greece, bypasses Thermopylae and makes its way to Delphi, but is stopped by guerrilla resistance from the Aetolian League in north-western Greece. In Italy, Pyrrhus of Epirus inflicts a second defeat on the Romans at Ausculum, where his heavy losses evoke the aphorism "Victory of Pyrrhus", a victory as costly as defeat. The Roman Senate rejects Pyrrhus' peace offer. 278 BC Campaigns of Pyrrhus against Carthage–275 BC Drivers in Sicily serving Greek cities. He forces the Carthaginians back to their fortress of Lilybaeum, modern-day Marsala, but cannot bear this, his ambition to create a Sicilian kingdom for himself is thwarted by the Greek cities. 278 BC A horde of Celts is brought into Asia Minor by Nicomedes of Bithynia, who hopes to use them against Seleucus' heir, Antiochus I, to secure the independence of the kingdom of Bithynia in north-western Asia Minor. The Celts (or Gauls) soon became a threat to Greek Ionia. 275 BC King Antiochus I, son of Seleucus, defeats the Celts in the "Battle of the Elephants," so called because Antiochus used a corps of elephants in his army, but then Antiochus turns to war with King Ptolemy II. from Egypt to. and Philetaerus, a eunuch, to Lysimachus xxiv

responsible for his treasury in the citadel of Pergamum, but after the death of Lysimachus he begins to act independently. Pyrrhus returns to Italy with an exhausted army and is defeated by the Romans at Beneventum, after which he returns to Greece. 274 BC Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, due to a defeat he inflicted on the Celts in the Dardanelles, occupies the vacant throne of Macedonia, where he will rule the Antigonid dynasty until the last king, Perseus, is dethroned by the Romans in 167 BC 272 BC Taranto surrenders to Rome and the Greek cities of southern Italy become Rome's allies. 264 BC BC Beginning of the First Punic War, in which Carthage takes on Rome. The two powers fight for control of the colonies on the island of Sicily. 263 BC In Asia Minor, Eumenes I, Philiteer's nephew and successor, inherits the governorship of Pergamum, nominally as governor of King Ptolemy II of Egypt. 260 BC Antiochus II reconquers much of the territory - 253 BC. ries in Asia Minor lost by Antiochus I during the Second Syrian War against Ptolemy II of Egypt. Pergamum remains independent. 260 BC BC Rome wins a naval battle for the Carthaginian fleet off Mylae in northeastern Sicily using an iron hook called the Corvus, which enabled the Romans to use effective boarding tactics against Carthaginian ships. 256 BC The Romans achieve another naval victory off Cape Ecnomus in southern Sicily, then land in Africa and defeat the Carthaginians. Xantipus, a mercenary from Sparta, reorganizes the Carthaginian army and defeats the Romans at the Battle of Tunis the following year, forcing their surrender.

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The Chou dynasty ends in China. At 771 years, the Chou are the longest dynasty in Chinese history. 251 BC AD Aratus of Sicyon adds Sicyon to the Achaean Confederation. He is an aggressive general of the Confederacy and later adds city-states like Megalapolis (235) and Argos (229). 250 BC A newly built Roman fleet is victorious at Panormus, modern-day Palermo, but is defeated the following year at Drepanum, modern-day Trapani. In Bactria (East Iran), the Greeks, whose ancestors were founded by Alexander the Great, greet their general Diodotus as king. The kingdom lasted for over a century, although in later years it split into two kingdoms under rival kings. 246 BC The Third Syrian War is fought between -241 BC. led. Ptolemy III (Euergetes) of Egypt and the Seleucid king Seleucus II, who replaced Antiochus II. 241 BC Attalus I follows Eumenes I of Pergamon. Because he refuses to pay homage to the Galatians, he is given the name Soter ("Redeemer"). Under Attalus, Pergamum becomes a major power and is the focus of Roman politics in Greece and Asia Minor. Hamilcar Barca is defeated by the Romans in the Aegean Islands. The First Punic War ends. 238 BC Carthaginian mercenaries insurgents in Sardinia ask Rome for help and force Carthage to cede the island to them. 237 BC Carthage begins to expand its empire in Spain under the leadership of Hamilcar Barca. Amílcar Barca, accompanied by his ten-year-old son Aníbal, conquers southern and eastern Spain. New Punic outposts in the region challenge Roman hegemony. 232 BC BC Ashoka, the Buddhist monarch of the Maurya Empire in India, dies.

227 BC BC Rome united Sardinia with Corsica to form its second province. 226 BC Chr. Hasdrubal, his father-in-law's successor by Hamilcar Barca as Carthaginian commander in Spain, makes a treaty with Rome agreeing not to expand north of the Ebro, but Rome still makes an alliance with Saguntus south of the Ebro. 223 BC Antiochus III. (the Great) begins his reign over the Seleucid Kingdom. Extends dynasty into Armenia and regains Parthia and Bactria. 221 BC BC Hasdrubal is murdered and Hamilcar Barca's eldest son, Hannibal, becomes Carthaginian general in Spain. 219 BC BC conquers Hannibal Sagunto, an ally of Rome. Rome demands that Carthage renounce Sagunto and hand Hannibal over to her, and when Carthage refuses they declare war. 218 BC The Second Punic War begins. Hannibal crosses the Pyrenees, marches through southern France and over the Alps to Italy with 50,000 men, 9,000 horsemen and 37 war elephants. In autumn he defeats the consul Publius Cornelius Scipio on the Ticinus river at the foot of the Alps. The other consul joins Scipio and the two are defeated at the Trebia River in December. 217 BC BC Hannibal defeats the consul Gaius Flaminius at Lake Trasimeno. Quintus Fabius Maximus is proclaimed dictator for six months and avoids battle with Hannibal. 216 BC At Cannae, Hannibal inflicts a disastrous defeat on the Romans, led by the consuls of the year, after which Rome adopts more cautious tactics and avoids combat with Hannibal. 215 BC After Rome's defeat at Cannae, King Philip V of Macedon allies with Hannibal, and to block Philip, Rome allies with Hannibal.

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The Aetolian League and First Macedonian War between Rome and Macedonia begin. In Sicily, Rome's old ally, King Hiero of Syracuse, dies, and under his successor, Syracuse falls to Carthage. Led by the consul Marcellus, Rome besieges Syracuse, defending itself with war machines designed by Archimedes, who lives in Syracuse. 214 BC The First Macedonian War begins with Philip V's attack on Messene. The construction of the Great Wall of China begins when smaller, pre-existing border walls are joined together and strengthened. The purpose of the wall is to prevent the Hsiung-nu, nomads from northern China (Mongolia), from entering. 212 BC Syracuse is taken and Archimedes is killed in the plundering that follows. Carthage leaves Sicily. 207 BC Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal takes Hannibal's reinforcements across the Alps, but is defeated and killed at the Metaurus River in north-eastern Italy. 206 BC The Romans under the young Publius Cornelius Scipio gain control of Spain. Hannibal's younger brother Mago leads the Carthaginian fleet from Spain to Genoa to incite the Celts and Ligurians of northern Italy to revolt against Rome. 205 BC Chr. Scipio returns from Spain and is elected consul. Philip V of Macedonia and Rome sign a peace, the so-called "Phoenician Peace", in which Rome withdraws its troops from Greece two years earlier. 204 BC BC Scipio leads an army into Africa, forcing Carthage to seek peace. Peace talks lead to Hannibal's withdrawal from Italy. 202 BC Chr. Peace talks fail, a decisive battle ensues between the Roxxvi

the men led by Scipio and the Carthaginians led by Hannibal at Zama where the Carthaginians are defeated. Rome imposes a huge indemnity as part of the peace terms. 201 BC End of the Second Punic War. Carthage signs a treaty with Rome, surrendering its navy and territories to Spain. 200 BC defeated King Antiochus III. the army of King Ptolemy V of Egypt in the Battle of Panion and annexed southern Syria and Palestine, which had previously belonged to Egypt. Jerusalem now falls under Seleucid rule. After receiving appeals from Pergamum, Rhodes and Athens against Philip V's expansionism, Rome sends an army and navy to Greece, beginning the Second Macedonian War. The volcanic islands of the South Pacific are inhabited by Sea Peoples who migrated from Southeast Asia. The Hopewell culture begins to develop in central North America, which later becomes Ohio and Illinois; This society is characterized by mound formation. 197 BC A Roman army under the command of Titus Quinctius Flamininus advances towards Thessaly and at the Battle of Cynoscephalae defeats Philip V, who is forced to retreat to his own kingdom, paying an indemnity and using his entire fleet except for give up six ships. 196 BC At the Isthmian Games, Flamininus proclaims that all Greek cities should be free, and two years later Roman troops leave Greece. 192 BC War breaks out with the Seleucid king Antiochus III. which was decisively defeated two years later at Magnesia, south of Pergamon in Asia Minor. 188 BC The Peace of Apamea kills Antiochus III. Harsh conditions set in motion the fall of the Seleucid Empire and Rome was now lord of the eastern Mediterranean.

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about 185 BC The Sungas replaced the Mauryas as the dominant empire in India. Pusyamitra becomes the first Sunga ruler and converts India from Buddhism to orthodox Hinduism. 175 BC Chr. Antiochus IV Epiphanes ("revealed God") becomes king of the Seleucid Empire and tries to stop its decline. His quest to be recognized as divine and receive sacrifices like a god leads to a rebellion by conservative Jews in Judea known as the "Maccabees Revolt" in honor of their leader Judas Maccabeus. 171 BC The Third Macedonian War begins between Rome and Perseus, son of Philip V, king of Macedonia. 168 BC After some initial setbacks, Lucius Aemilius defeats Paulus Perseus at the Battle of Pydna. Perseus is captured in Rome and the Macedonian kingdom is dissolved. Polybius of Megalopolis is one of the thousand hostages of the Achaean League brought to Rome, and there he writes his universal history in 39 books. 164 BC The Maccabees rededicate the temple in Jerusalem. The event is celebrated as Hanukkah from this date. Antiochus IV dies. 149 BC A third war breaks out between Rome and Carthage.

Han Wu-ti is Emperor of China. He is an innovator in education, business and defense. Establishes a public granary in China and innovates cavalry. 136 BC A slave revolt breaks out in Sicily, lasting from -132 B.C. is cited. The Syrian slave Eunus, captured after Enna and Tauromenium, two centers of revolt, falls to Rome. It is estimated that twenty thousand slaves were crucified. 133 BC Attalus III, the last king of Pergamum, dies and bequeaths his kingdom to Rome. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus is elected tribune (annual office) and attempts to settle poor Roman citizens on small farms through an agrarian reform, using the royal treasury of Pergamon to pay for the costs of this measure. Gracchus is killed trying to secure his election to a second term as tribune of the people, which his opponents considered unconstitutional. 130 BC An anti-Roman revolt in Pergamon, which its last king had bequeathed to Rome, is put down and Pergamon organized as the Roman province of Asia. 129 BC The death of Antiochus VII marks the end of Seleucid power in the eastern region. The Parthians remain the leading power east of Babylon.

146 BC A Roman army under the command of Publius Scipio Aemilianus conquered and destroyed Carthage.

123 BC Gaius Gracchus, younger brother of Tiberius, –122 BC. renews the agrarian reform initiated by Tiberius, but loses electoral support when he attempts to extend citizenship to Rome's allies. When Gracchus' group occupies the Aventine Hill, the Senate declares martial law, Gracchus' followers are killed, and Gracchus lets his slave kill him.

Rome suppresses an Achaean League rebellion in Greece and destroys the city of Corinth. The territories of the Achaean League are annexed and Rome turns Greece into a Roman province called Achaea.

112 BC Jugurthine's War in Numidia brings -105 B.C. the incompetence of the Senate government in Rome. Jugurtha finally dies in 106 BC. defeated by Marius. and the following year he surrenders to Lucius Cornelius Sulla.

141 BC A period of Jewish independence begins in Judea. Simon Maccabee becomes high priest after the murder of his brother Jonathan.

113 BC From –101 B.C. the Cimbri and Germans immigrate. Jutland to Gaul (modern-day France) and defeats the Roman armies, encountering them three times. There is panic in Rome, and

149 BC Anti-Roman revolt breaks out in Mace, 148 BC. don and after its suppression Macedonia becomes 146 v. Chr. A Roman province.

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Marius returns from Africa, is elected consul and remains in power until 100 BC. re-elected to successive consulates. He reforms the Roman army so that it is no longer recruited from large landowners but from the landless proletariat who hope to settle on small farms once they are demobilized. 102 BC BC Marius defeated the Germans at Aquae Sextiae (today Aix-en-Provence) in southern France with his reformed army. about 100 BC The Belgians, a Gaulish people, arrive in Britain. The city of Teotihuacán, forty kilometers from present-day Mexico City, developed into an important trading center; It houses the Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of the Sun, the latter being the largest building in pre-Columbian America. 91 BC A tribune, Marcus Livius Drusus, proposes reviving Gracchan's land reform and extending Roman citizenship to Rome's Italian allies, but is assassinated. 91 BC The assassination of Drusus triggered -89 BC. a revolt from. Rome's Italian allies, worried about civil rights, are bitterly disappointed. They form their own independent federation, and the resulting civil war will not end until Rome grants them citizenship. 88 BC Chr. attacks Mithridates VI. incites the Roman province of Asia and incites the Greeks to revolt against hated Roman officials and fiscal agents. Eighty thousand Romans in Asia Minor are killed in the resulting massacre. The Roman Senate puts Sulla in charge of war against Mithridates, but the popular assembly puts Marius in command. Sulla marches his army into Rome, expels Marius' followers, restores Senate rule, and then goes to war against Mithridates. 87 BC After Sulla's death, Marius returns to Rome with his followers, butchers his political opponents and is elected consul for the seventh time. xviii

87 BC In Greece, Sulla besieged and conquered –86 BC. Athens, which had supported Mithridates, and after the capture, many Greek works of art are sent to Rome. Plato's Academy closes. 86 BC Chr. Marius dies shortly after assuming his seventh consulship. Sulla defeats the army of Mithridates at Chaeronea, Greece, and again the following year at Orchomenus. 83 BC BC Sulla returns to Italy and the following year annihilates the Marian partisans and their allies, the Samnites and Lucanians, at the Battle of the Colline Gate, one of Rome's city gates. 82 BC BC Sulla, assuming office as dictator, –79 BC He draws up a list of enemies to be killed, including ninety senators and two thousand six hundred knights, then reforms the constitution, placing control of Roman government in the hands of the Senate, which was ruled by dominated by a select group of ancient Roman families. about 80 BC Invaders from Central Asia begin to spread into the Indus Valley. Chinese silk is increasingly becoming a major luxury import for wealthy provinces like Roman Egypt. 79 BC Chr. Sulla voluntarily renounced the dictatorship and died a year later. 78 BC After the death of Sulla, one of the consuls of the year, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus attempts to reverse Sulla's constitutional reforms, and when he resorts to armed rebellion, the Senate bestows the extraordinary recognition powers to suppress them. . 77 BC BC Pompey convinces the Senate to give him -71 BC. to grant. a special order to quell a rebellion in Spain, led by one of Marius' former officers, Quintus Sertorius, which Pompey executes after Sertorius is betrayed and killed.

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74 BC Again war with Mithridates VI, king of Pontus, a former supporter of Sulla, Lucius Licinius Lucullus, is sent to suppress him and is very successful at first. 73 BC As a gladiator, Spartacus leads 71 BC. a revolt. slaves in Italy. The rebellion is suppressed by Marcus Licinius Crassus, and the remnants of the slave army are eliminated by Pompey, who finds them returning to Italy from Spain. 70 B.C. BC Pompeius and Crassus, both successful generals with armies to support them, demand the consulship and, after the consuls are elected, reverse Sulla's constitutional reform. The Roman poet Virgil was born in the Andean city near Mantua in the Gaulish province of Cisalpina. 68 BC Chr. Pompey receives an extraordinary order to suppress piracy in the eastern Mediterranean, which he efficiently does within six months. 66 BC BC Pompey sent to replace Lucullus, 63 BC. defeats Mithridates, conquers most of Asia Minor and advances along the Mediterranean coast to the border with Egypt. He takes Jerusalem and enters the Holy of Holies in the Jewish Temple, earning the hatred of the Jews. 63 BC Marcus Tullius Cicero, famous as a statesman, orator and author of works on philosophy and politics, is one of two consuls of the year and during his consulship suppresses a conspiracy led by Lucius Sergius Catiline. 60 B.C. Chr. Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar form the so-called "First Triumvirate," an unofficial coalition of three to advance their various political goals. 59 BC With the support of the First Triumvirate, Julius Caesar is elected consul, with an intransigent senator, Bibulus, as his colleague. Caesar fulfills Pompey's political agenda and gains rulership of the city for himself.

Provinces of Cisalpine Gaul (Italy north of the Rubicon), Gaul Narbonensis (southern France), and Illyria (present-day Croatia and Serbia) for a period of five years. 58 BC Caesar conquers all of Gaul (present-day France - 51 BC) and twice crosses the English Channel to investigate Britain. 56 BC Chr. Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus renew their political coalition and agree that Pompey and Crassus will be consuls for the next year and then receive provincial governments while Caesar will rule Gaul for another five years. Pompey marries Caesar's daughter Julia to cement the alliance. 55 BC BC Pompey and Crassus become consuls, and then Pompey is appointed governor (proconsul) of Spain for a five-year term, and Crassus of Syria, where he plans to gain military laurels by attacking the Parthians. Pompey remains in Rome and rules Spain with legates as his representatives. Britain faces a Roman invasion under Caesar. 52 BC Due to the gang wars in Rome, Pompey is elected consul without equal to ensure law and order and, at the end of his term, is given the government of Spain for another five years. 51 BC BC Uxellodunum falls to Caesar as the last city in Gaul. The Roman wars against Gaul ended. 49 BC The Roman Senate refused to comply with Caesar's request to be allowed to attend the consulship in his absence, which would allow him to avoid prosecution for illegal acts during his consulship. He decrees that Caesar must relinquish command and directs Pompey to defend the republic. Caesar crosses the Rubicon River separating the province of Cisalpine Gaul from Italy and makes his way to Rome while Pompey evacuates Italy to Greece. Instead of following Pompey, Caesar goes to Spain and crushes Pompey's armies in six months.

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48 B.C. defeated Caesar Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus, Greece. Pompey flees to Egypt, where he is killed by the boy king Ptolemy XIII. executed on the advice of his ministers, who thought they would gain Caesar's favor in this way. Caesar comes to Egypt in search of Pompey, where he takes the young princess Cleopatra as his mistress and engages in a war with Ptolemy XIII. and finds the Alexandrians involved. 47 B.C. Cleopatra gives birth to Julius Caesar's son: Ptolemy Caesar, commonly known as "Caesarion" (Little Caesar). After placing Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt, Julius Caesar goes to Asia Minor, defeats Pharnaces, son of Mithridates VI and supporter of Pompey, at Zela (Zila, in north-central Turkey) and sends a despatch to the Roman Senate. it says Veni, vidi, vici ("I came, I saw, I conquered"). Caesar lands in Africa to quell Pompey's supporters, who have gathered there in a last-ditch effort to "save the republic." 46 B.C. BC Caesar crushes the Pompeian resistance in Africa at the Battle of Thapsus. Caesar returns to Italy, becomes dictator for ten years, introduces a series of reforms including the Julian calendar which sets the year at 365 days with an extra day every four years, and departs for Spain in November to celebrate the the resistance cited to suppress sons of Pompey. 45 B.C. At Munda, southeast of Seville, Spain, Caesar defeats the last stand of the Pompeians. 44 B.C. Chr. Julius Caesar is assassinated by a cabal of senators led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Julius Caesar's great-nephew Octavian, whom Caesar had adopted and named as his heir in his will, arrives in Rome to take up his inheritance. Dacia burebistas is murdered; Your empire is divided into several kingdoms. xxx

43 BC The Roman poet Ovid was born in Sulmus, about ninety miles from Rome. The "Second Triumvirate" of Mark Antony, Octavian and Lepidus is formed, and the next day the prohibitions begin: a list of political enemies is drawn up, including Marcus Tullius Cicero, and they are liquidated. 42 BC BC Brutus and Cassius, Caesar's assassins, are defeated in two separate battles at Philippi in northern Greece. 41 BC In Tarsus, Asia Minor, Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, meets Mark Antony, who accepts her invitation to spend the winter with her in Alexandria. 37 B.C. BC Herod the Great with Roman support, –34 BC rules Judea. Herod encourages the spread of Hellenism throughout the province, which provokes opposition from his subjects, mainly the Pharisees. 36 B.C. BC Sextus Pompeius, the last surviving son of Pompeius, is defeated in the naval battle of Naulochus and driven out of southern Italy and Sicily. Octavian demotes Lepidus after seizing power. w. 35 v. A writing system is introduced in Guatemala, Central America. 31 BC BC Octavian defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium. 30 B.C. Chr. Octavian enters Alexandria as a conqueror. Antony has already committed suicide and Cleopatra takes poison to avoid being taken to Rome in triumph. 29 B.C. BC Octavian returns to Rome and celebrates a triple triumph. 27 B.C. Octavius, heir to Julius Caesar, agrees with the Roman Senate to share power with him. Octavian continues to hold the office of consul each year, but claims to have restored the republic and is bestowed the title of "Augustus," the "Honored One," by the Senate, which is adopted by all subsequent emperors.

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23 BC Chr. Augustus resigns from the consulship in the middle of the year; after that he is consul only twice. Instead, he is granted tribunician power (tribunicia potestas), which gives him powers once exercised by a tribune in the Republic, including general veto power. 16 B.C. The provinces of Spain and Gaul date from 13 BC. organized under the Roman Emperor Augustus. The emperor divided Hispania Ulterior into Bética (Andalusia) and Lusitania. 14 AD Emperor Augustus dies and is succeeded by his stepson Tiberius. 9 AD Wang Mang rules China. As with his pre-23 AD successors, the problems plaguing his rule are economic (resistance by wealthy landowners leading to famine) and military (continued struggle against the Hsiung-nu in the north). c. AD 30 The crucifixion of the Jewish leader Jesus – c. AD 33 from Nazareth. AD 37 Tiberius dies and is succeeded by Gaius Caligula, whose ancestors trace back to Augustus Caesar through Augustus' daughter Julia. AD 41 Gaius Caligula is murdered by the Praetorian Guard, who put Caligula's uncle Claudius on the throne. ca. 45 AD São Paulo begins his missionary work to bring Christianity to Gentile communities throughout Europe. AD 54 Claudius dies, allegedly poisoned by his fourth wife Julia Agrippina, who plots the accession of Nero, her son by a previous marriage, leaving behind Claudius' own son Britannicus. 64 AD A huge fire destroys half of Rome. Nero takes the opportunity to build his palace known as the Domus Aurea (Golden House) in the area cleared of the fire. Saint Paul is executed in Rome. Under the Roman Empire, persecution of members of the Christian sect begins.

66 C.E. The “Zealot” party (Jewish nationalists) leads a revolt against Rome in Judea. 68 AD Vindex, governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebels and proposes Servius Sulpicius Galba, governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, as his candidate to replace Nero. Vindex revolt is suppressed, but Rome's Senate and Praetorian Guard accept Galba as Emperor. Nero escapes and commits suicide. 68 AD After three men, Galba, Otho and Vitel – 69 AD Lius, were quickly succeeded, Vespasian, general charged with suppressing the revolt in Judea, gains the throne. It remains painfully clear to all that the Roman army can make and break emperors. 69 BC The natives besiege the German town of Colonia Ulpia Traiana (Xanten); Mainz also rebelled. 70 CE Vespasian's son Titus, in command of the Roman army in Judea, conquers Jerusalem and destroys the temple. The spoils of Jerusalem are taken to Rome and placed in the new Forum of Peace that Vespasian is building. 78 C.E. As governor of Britain, Roman general Gnaeus Iulius Agricola advances toward Scotland. The Saka era begins in India. Many scholars prefer this date as the beginning of the reign of Kaniska, the Buddhist king responsible for protecting the Kushans from Chinese sovereignty. 79 C.E. Vespasian dies and is succeeded by his son Titus, who has already been appointed co-emperor. Mount Vesuvius erupts near the Bay of Naples in central Italy, burying Pompeii, Herculaneum and Oplontis in lava and ash. 81 CE With the death of Titus, his younger brother Domitian becomes emperor. 96 CE Domitian is murdered by members of his own family, including his wife.

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home. The Roman Senate elects an elderly senator named Marcus Cocceius Nerva to succeed him. AD 97 Faced with the threat of rebellion by the Praetorian Guard, Nerva adopts the governor of Upper Germany, Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Traianus), and appoints him co-emperor. 98 AD Trajan succeeds Nerva as emperor. ca. 100 AD Indonesian traders sail along the African coast and possibly landed settlers in Madagascar. The Funan, a Hindu people who originated in Southeast Asia, occupy the Mekong Delta region of modern-day Vietnam, as well as parts of Cambodia and Thailand. They trade with India and China. The Anasazi begin to develop their culture in the deserts of southwestern North America. They craft baskets, plant corn, and build adobe structures. AD 105 Trajan makes a second campaign in AD -106 Dacia and annexes Dacia as a Roman province. 117 AD Trajan dies and adopts Hadrian on his deathbed. 122 AD Hadrian's Wall, a boundary wall dating from -128 AD, is built. from Wallsend-on-Tyne to Bowness-on-Solway to protect Roman Britain from attack from the north. AD 138 Hadrian dies, having adopted Antoninus Pius as his successor, who in turn, at Hadrian's urging, adopts Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. In Dacia there are records of the presence of Moors (or Muslims); They occupy the city of Racari. ca. 150 AD The Goths migrate to the region north of –c. 200 AD the Black Sea; earlier migrations brought them from southern Scandinavia to the Vistula region. 161 CE Antoninus Pius dies after a long and peaceful reign and is succeeded by Marcus Aurexxxii

lius and Lucius Verus, who is co-emperor until 169 AD. AD 165 Seleucia destroyed by Gaius Avidius – AD 166 Cassius of Rome. The fall of the city destroys an important trading center of Babylon; Mesopotamia becomes a Roman protectorate. 166 AD The plague, brought back to Rome by the troops of Lucius Verus marching in the east, sweeps through the empire. The Germanic tribes crossed the Danube frontier and invaded the empire north of Italy. 180 CE Marcus Aurelius dies in a camp in Vienna while fighting the barbarian tribes known as the Marcomanni and Quadi on the Danube frontier, and is succeeded by his 18-year-old son Commodus. 184 AD The Romans are forced to cede the frontier in Scotland. The Roman border in Great Britain extends only to Hadrian's Wall. The Yellow Turban Rebellion against the Han Dynasty in China begins. The peasant uprising is crushed by Ts'ao Ts'ao in six years. 193 AD After the assassination of Commodus, a civil war ensues, ending with the seizure of power by Septimius Severus. The Siege of Byzantium begins, lasting about two years. The city supported the rebellion of General Pescennius Niger against the Roman ruler Septimius Severus. 211 AD Severus dies while campaigning in Britain and is succeeded by his sons Caracalla (co-emperor from 198) and Geta (co-emperor from 209). In the year 210 Caracalla murders Geta. 212 AD Emperor Caracalla extends Roman citizenship to all Roman provincials. 226 AD The Sasanids overthrow the Parthian dynasty in Iran. The Parthian Empire extended over a large area

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a period from the Iberian Peninsula (east of the Black Sea) to the Persian Gulf. 235 AD The Severan dynasty comes to an end with the assassination of Emperor Alexander Severus, and fifty years of military anarchy follow. 248 AD The Goths invade the Balkan city of Moesia and assassinate the Roman emperor Gaius Messius Quintus Decius (251); later they sacked Nicaea and Nicomedia and raided the Ionian cities.

305 AD Diocletian and Maximian retire and Galerius becomes Augustus the Great in place of Diocletian and Constantius Chlorus Augustus the Lesser in the west. AD 306 Constantius Chlorus dies in York, Roman Britain, and his troops proclaim his son Constantine emperor in place of his father. 311 AD Galerius, Augustus in the East, ends the persecution of Christians and dies soon after.

AD 249 To eradicate Christianity, Emperor Decius issues an edict ordering all citizens to make sacrifices to the gods and receive certification that they have done so. The order became extinct after the death of Decius in AD 251.

AD 312 Constantine defeats Maxentius, Maximian's son who had taken control of Italy, at the Milvian Bridge outside Rome. On the eve of the battle, he converted to Christianity and, once in control of Rome, built his first Christian church, the Lateran Basilica.

ca. 250 AD Classic Maya period begins in Mexico and Central America; The dedication of monuments to astrology and mathematics distinguishes this era.

313 AD Constantine and Licinius, now emperors in the East, agree to grant freedom of religion to Christians (the so-called "Edict of Milan").

254 AD Barbarian attacks in Upper Germany prompted many Roman troops to retreat.

Edict on Tolerance of Christian Worship is passed in Trier, Germany.

257 AD The Franks, a group of Germanic tribes, invade Lower Germany.

317 AD Eastern Chin dynasty begins in China. The ruler will eventually succumb to continued attacks from the north.

AD 284 Diocletian becomes emperor and reforms the government of the empire, appointing Maximian co-Augustus, ruling the western empire while Diocletian himself rules the east, and later naming Galerius (in the east) and Constantius Chlorus (in the east) as Caesars . in the West).

320 AD Candra Gupta I reigns in India. He controls the center of the country at the time of his death and establishes a power base from the Ganges to the coast of Bengal.

287 AD Marcus Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius, a former Roman admiral, conquers Britain and northern Gaul and proclaims himself emperor.

324 AD Constantine unites the empire by defeating Licinius, the Augustus of the East.

c.301 AD Christianity becomes the official religion of Armenia, making it the oldest Christian civilization. AD 303 Diocletian issues an edict authorizing the general persecution of Christians, which Diocletian's successor Galerius carries out vigorously in the East but less vigorously in the West.

St. Pachomius founds the first cenobitic community in Egypt.

Byzantium becomes the founding place of Constantinople, the Roman capital on the Danube border. In AD 330, Constantine inaugurated his new capital, Constantinople, today's Istanbul. AD 337 Constantine dies and is succeeded by his three sons Constantine II (337–340), Constantius (337–350) and Constantius II (337–361).

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Timeline of world events

354 AD Aurélio Agostinho (Saint Augustine) is born; becomes one of the most important authors of the early Catholic Church. His works include Confessions (c. 400), De doctrina Christiana (On Christian Doctrine, 397–428), De trinitate (On the Trinity, 400–416) and De civitate Dei (On the City of God, 413–426). . 331 AD The reign of the last pagan emperor Julian - 363 AD, who is killed during a disastrous expedition against the Persian Empire. 370 AD The Huns expel the Ostrogoths from Ukraine. The Ostrogoths are a division of the Goths who formerly migrated from Scandinavia to the region south of the Vistula. 378 AD A Roman army led by Emperor Valens is crushed by the Goths at Adrianople, Thrace. 382 AD Emperor Theodosius I establishes the Goths within the empire as federated troops; They are not enlisted in the Roman army, but serve their own chiefs as allies (foederati) of the Roman Empire. 395 AD After the death of Emperor Theodosius, the empire is divided between his two sons, with Honorius ruling in the west and his elder brother Arcadius in the east. ca. 400 AD The first settlers from the Polynesian islands arrive in Hawaii. Pelagius, the British Christian writer, is active during this period. He spends a few years in Rome, but the political turmoil there takes him to Africa and Palestine; Pelagius' Admonition to Demetrias is considered the first British literature.

The unit marks the end of Roman rule in Gaul. 410 AD The city of Rome is conquered and sacked by a horde of Visigoths led by Alaric. Britain is abandoned by the Roman Empire. Saxons and other Germanic peoples become more dominant; Celtic culture is also widespread. Alaric dies. 429 AD The Vandals invade North Africa and over the next decade take control of the Roman provinces there. 441 AD Attila leads the Huns against the Eastern Roman Empire –443 AD; They destroy cities like Naissus in Moesia. 451 AD The Huns are defeated in Gaul by a Roman force along with the Visigoths in the plains of Catalonia. The Council of Chalcedon establishes the doctrine of Diophysitism, the idea that Christ is both human and divine; the council declares every other doctrine to be heresy. Persians defeat Armenians at the Battle of Avarayr. The Zoroastrian faith replaces Christianity as the official religion in this region. 476 AD Odoacer the Germane deposes Romulus Augustus in Rome; The Ostrogoths soon establish an empire in Italy. Genseric, king of the Vandals and Alans, who had conquered Rome eleven years earlier, dies the following year. The last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, is deposed.

The Olmec civilization ends in Central America.

490 AD The Ostrogoths under their king Theodoric invade Italy and found the Ostrogothic Empire, which lasts until 554.

406 AD Germanic Vandals occupy the Rhine area - 407 AD after the Huns drove them west; Nomadic Alans from Russia were also brought to Gaul by the Huns. this example

527 AD Emperor Justinian reigns in Constant-565 AD Tinople and leads a campaign to regain North Africa, Italy and part of Spain for the empire.

xiv

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Chapter one

ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN William H. Peck

IMPORTANT EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 PROBLEMS Surviving Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Minoan and Mycenaean Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Greek Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Etruscan architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Roman architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Late Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture . . . . . . 39 MEANINGFUL PEOPLE Adriano. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pausanias. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plutarch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suetonius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vitruvian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

40 40 41 41 41

DOCUMENTARY SOURCES. . . . . . . . . . 42

SIDEBARS AND MAIN DOCUMENTS Primary sources are listed in italics

The Ruins of Mycenae (Pausanias explains the story behind the ruins of Mycenae). . . . Pausanias describes the Parthenon (Pausanias explains the historical and mythological significance of the ornamentation of the Parthenon). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Urban planning was not only invented by the Greeks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The training of the architect (Vitruvius describes the training of a Roman architect). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emperor Augustus changes the face of Rome (Seutonius comments on the architectural legacy of Emperor Augustus). Nero builds a "Golden House" (Suetonius tells the story of Nero's luxurious palace). . Large bathing establishments (Ancient commentary on the size of public works in Rome). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . 12

. . . 18 . . 26

. . . 27

. . . 28 . . . 30

. . . 34

visible to later Greek travelers.

IMPORTANT EVENTS in architecture and design c. 3000 BC The beginning of Hellenic civilization on mainland Greece includes the construction of some of the first structures for domestic and public use. f. 2000 B.C. The first attempts at more carefully designed architecture take place in Greece. f. 2000 B.C. The inhabitants of Crete are influenced –c. 1600 BC through its contacts with other peoples of the eastern Mediterranean to attempt larger and more complete constructions. f. 2000 B.C. Minoan palace culture on Crete – c. 1450 BC flowers; This architecture is known for arranging buildings around a central courtyard, several levels connected by small staircases and monumental entrances. around 1600 BC The development of Mycenaean –c. 1200 BC The palace culture extends over parts of mainland Greece. This architecture is influenced by the Minoan palatial culture but has more logical layouts and is built like fortresses. around 1450 BC Cretan palaces destroyed, probably by invaders from mainland Greece. around 1300 BC The “Treasure of Atreus” at Mycenae – c. 1250 BC It is built. It is an almost perfectly preserved example of the "Tholos" type of tomb. approx. 1250 BC The Lion Gate of Mycenae, one of the few Mycenaean monuments, the 2nd

around 1100 BC On this date or shortly before there is a total destruction of palaces and citadels. There followed about four centuries of confusion and poverty, later dubbed by some scholars the "Dark Ages" of Greece. approx. 800 BC The first Greek temples are built first -c. 700 BC with pre-Doric designs. approx. 580 BC The Temple of Artemis in Corfu and the Temple of Hera in Olympia are built. These temples are the oldest known examples of Archaic Doric architecture. approx. 550 BC The Temple of Apollo at Corinth and the Basilica at Paestum are completed. They are the best-known surviving examples of purely Doric-style temples. w. 490 BC The Aphaia temple in Aegina is completed. It is the first temple to combine Doric and Ionic styles. w. 447 B.C. The Parthenon in Athens is built. -W 432 BC It is the best surviving example of a Doric temple with Ionic elements. w. 437 B.C. The Propylaea in Athens is built. -W 432 BC It is one of the few surviving monumental gate buildings. w. 421 BC The Erechtheum of Athens is con–c. 405 BC structured. It is the only major temple built entirely in the Ionic style. w. 350 BC The construction of the Epidaurus Theater, one of the best preserved Greek theaters, begins. approx. 170 BC The construction of the Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens begins and is not completed until the 2nd century AD. It is one of the most balanced examples of Corinthian-style Doric architecture.

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approx. 150 BC Around this date the Stoa of Attalus is built, a public meeting place and shop in the Agora of Athens. It is a typical example of a building designed for practical use and commerce. about 100 BC The Temple of Fortuna Virilis was built in Rome and incorporates elements of Greek and Etruscan design.

f. AD 111. The building of Trajan's Forum, –c. 114 AD, the largest of the imperial forums, takes place at this time. w. AD 113 Trajan's Column is dedicated in its forum in Rome. This marks the first pillar, which serves as a burial place and commemorative marker.

w. 40 v. The Tower of the Winds is built in Athens. It is the first truly Roman structure built in Greece.

ca. 125 AD The Pantheon in Rome is built. -W AD 128. It is a fine surviving example of the Roman use of concrete to make domes and rotundas.

w. 27 v. The Pantheon in Rome was begun by Agrippa but not completed until the reign of Emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century.

ca. 135 AD Hadrian's Villa in Tivoli is completed. It is a rare architectural complex that incorporated the landscape into the design of several buildings.

w. 16 v. The aqueduct Pont du Gard is com–c. 13 B.C. structured. It is admired for its functionality in water transport as well as for its architectural features such as its proportional arches and different heights.

ca. 211 AD The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are –c. Built 217 CE, one of the best preserved large bathrooms. It shows the extravagances that architectural projects began to include, such as swimming pools, bathrooms and playrooms.

Maison Carrée was built in Nîmes. It is the best surviving example of the combination of Greek and Etruscan designs used in Augustan architecture.

c. AD 300 Diocletian's Palace is built at Spalato, following the architectural decay of Persian designs.

w. 64 AD Nero's Golden House is completed. It brings together all the architectural techniques known at the time, including a revolutionary rotating dome. c. AD 70 Rome's Colosseum, an unprecedented four-story structure, is completed. It was created using pioneering architectural tools such as arches, columns, and mechanical elements such as pulleys and elevators.

c.306 AD The Basilica of Maxentius in Rome is –c. Built in AD 313. It is one of the most important monuments of classical antiquity and one of the first Christian monuments in Rome. w. 310 AD Completion of the Basilica of Constantine in Trier in northern Gaul. It is the last of the great civil basilicas built before the style was fully adopted by religious structures.

ca. 79 AD The destruction of Pompeii by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius preserves Roman architecture for future generations.

w. AD 312. The Arch of Constantine in Rome is –c. Built in AD 315, which also marks the regular use of the Corinthian-Roman style. The arch is also the best preserved example of a triumphal arch.

ca. 81 AD Completion of the Arch of Titus in Rome. It is the best preserved example of an entrance arch.

w. AD 532. Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is –c. Built in 537 AD. It is the greatest example of Byzantine architecture.

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN AT A GLANCE THE HERITAGE OF CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE. The architecture of Greece, Etruria and Rome has been one of the most important parts of the western world heritage since ancient times. The forms and traditions that developed in ancient Greece and its colonies were complemented by the influence of Etruscan traditions through the innovations of Roman architects and engineers. These inspired and shaped the architectural forms of Europe and the United States, and all the cultures they touched. The traditions of classical architecture survived well into the 20th century, only to be partially replaced by the advent of modern building techniques and materials. For many years, the models of banks, train stations and other public buildings were the temples of the Greeks and the baths of the Romans. SOURCES AND EVIDENCE. The sources of knowledge available to modern scholars for studying the architecture of the Greeks, Etruscans and Romans are mainly of four types. The most obvious evidence is ancient buildings, all or part of which still stand, although there are very few structures that fall into this category. Examples are the Pantheon in Rome and the Maison Carrée in Nîmes, France. The second material comes from the excavation of ancient sites and remains of destroyed buildings. These testimonies offer the additional possibility of somewhat reconstructing the appearance of the monuments that are no longer preserved, and also provide a great deal of modern knowledge about residential architecture, house building and living. A third source is the writings of a limited number of ancient Greek and Roman authors, who have preserved some descriptions of the appearance of buildings and the construction methods employed or architectural theories. Added to these three sources is the depiction of monuments and buildings on coins and other works of art. These can give you an idea of what structures long gone will look like. 4

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS. The materials used by ancient architects were generally simple and somewhat limited by the technology of the time. In the early periods, mudbrick and rough plaster were used, with the addition of wood as a covering material. The development of stone architecture was slow at first, dependent on the metal technology required to facilitate the removal and finishing of the material. The use of the stone was initially limited to important buildings, especially temples. The main construction technique consisted of a horizontal element supported by two vertical pins. Even the use of this simple form was limited by the technical possibility of placing stone elements at great heights. As the knowledge of the load-bearing capacity of stone became better understood, buildings could take on larger dimensions. At the same time, the decoration of buildings progressed as the artistic qualities of architecture developed and changed. Complex architectural elements using arches and vaults and the advanced use of brick and concrete were relatively late innovations made mainly during the Roman Empire period. These advances allowed for larger structures that could enclose large spaces. MINOAN AND MYCENE CULTURE. The oldest records of designed structures in Greece come from the remains of palaces on the island of Crete, built between 1700 B.C. Built by the Minoan Civilization. and 1200 BC It is necessary to mention them also because they represent an important architectural tradition of distant memory in the Aegean area and represent a stage of development to which later Greek architects would return. The multi-storey complexes of these palaces, with upper floors supported by columns and frescoed walls, achieved a level of utilitarian design and sophistication unparalleled in antiquity. The Minoans were succeeded by the Mycenaean civilization of mainland Greece, which made significant advances in its final phase (ca. 1400-1100 BC). Massive stone architecture for citadels, temples and tombs became typical, but this tradition did not continue during the so-called "Dark Ages" of Greece (c. 1200-800 BC). Much of the knowledge about architectural achievements and technical progress was lost and had to be reinvented after almost 400 years. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. The early beginnings of traditional Greek architecture can only be traced with very scant evidence. These include the excavated remains of a building called the Megaron at the Themon site in Aetolia, Greece, which dates from around 1000 BC. Terracotta models of similar buildings from two centuries later provide further evidence of the importance

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form. The megaron consisted of a single room or hall with one open end and a porch supported by two columns. Buildings of this type were probably an official meeting hall rather than a religious edifice, but the plan anticipates the general plan of the later formal plan of the temple. late 7th century BC From the CE the two main arrangements or "orders" of Greek architecture began to develop. The Doric and Ionic orders take their names from the two Greek dialects spoken on the continent and in Asia Minor. As architectural styles, Doric developed earlier, but the two orders were used simultaneously throughout Greece and in the colonies. The plan of the temple at that time was still a simple floor plan, consisting of an elongated room with a portico supported by columns. Some relief carvings were added and statues of cult deities were evident. Around the year 600 BC The emerging form of the Greek temple can be demonstrated in the ruins of the Temple of Hera at Olympia. This temple is also clear evidence of the transition from wooden to stone architecture. In the early 6th century, around 570, the formal elements of arrangement and decoration were standardized. The result, exemplified by the Temple of Zeus, also at Olympia, was an example of logical and impressive design. After the destruction of the Acropolis of Athens by the Persians in the early 5th century, the Parthenon was built between 447 and 439. Dedicated to Athena, it is the epitome of classical architecture and the culmination of a development in architectural design that he simply transformed functional buildings into artistically rendered and impressive monuments. The architecture of the Hellenistic period (330–146 BC) used variations and elaborations on the forms developed from classical architecture of the 5th and 4th centuries, but retained standards of proportion and design, seeking a more dramatic and more impressive effect. ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE. Etruscan architecture began to develop at about the same time as early Greek architecture. The Etruscans were mainly in contact with the Greeks in north-western Italy and shaped the Romans. The testimonies of Etruscan architecture consist mainly of the remains of their temples and tombs. The tomb was often an underground chamber or chambers, sometimes marked by a tomb or mound. The typical temple form contained a chamber with a deep porch, usually raised on a platform with steps leading there. Much of the surviving decoration of Etruscan temples was made of molded and painted terracotta, rather than the carved stone favored by the Greeks. Etruscan forms such as the raised temple

and the circular tombs influenced the architecture of the following Roman period. CLASSICAL AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. The Romans continued in many ways the tradition of Greek architects, but were also influenced by the Etruscans. The unique innovations of the Romans were the more widespread use of the arch and the development of the vault and dome. These forms were made possible through the use of construction techniques that involved the use of concrete, a material taken for granted in modern times but not fully explored until the end of the Roman Republic. The theatres, arenas, bridges, baths and aqueducts of the Romans represent an era of technological advancement almost unparalleled in world history. The advances in engineering and building techniques made during the late Roman Republic and early Empire continued after Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. This was particularly evident in the use of the basilica form, originally a type of profane administrative building, for the architectural design of the church, but also in the use of vaulting and vaulting techniques in the construction of church forms that were becoming more and more elaborate. When Emperor Constantine moved the capital to Constantinople, the state encouraged the development of monumental structures dedicated to the new religion. DIPLOMA. Architecture in the classical world began simply to satisfy basic human needs. It was based on practical considerations and constrained by limited technical capabilities. Its development in the Greek homeland and colonies stretches back over 700 years in the development of a style that still inspires today. The complexity of architectural production among the Romans remains one of the great achievements in the history of building, culminating in the religious architecture of the Byzantine Empire. This evolution of architectural form took approximately 1,500 years, during which time much of the enduring vocabulary of Western architectural design was invented and refined.

TOPICS in architecture and design SOURCES OF SURVIVING THE LOSS OF EVIDENCE. The architecture of ancient Greece and Rome never completely disappeared. Many

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Examples of buildings or their remains have always been visible or easily rediscovered, particularly in mainland Greece and Italy. However, traces of classical antiquity can be found in the countries of the Mediterranean, the Aegean, North Africa and the Middle East. These remains were not always respected and preserved. It is evident that old buildings have been repurposed for purposes other than those originally intended, often requiring structural or decorative changes. For example, in Syracuse, Sicily, you can see the original pillars of a temple embedded in the wall of the later church that occupied the original site. Marble and sandstone could easily be reused, and limestone was often burned because of the lime it contained. Decorative columns were removed and inserted in later churches and mosques. Metal fittings and other decorative elements were regularly removed from buildings to be cast. Many dedicatory inscriptions in metal letters have disappeared as a result of this practice. THE REDISCOVERY IN THE RENAISSANCE. In the late 14th century, artists and architects, particularly in cities across Italy including Rome and Florence, began to take an interest in the art and architecture that surrounded them. It was an important part of the general awakening or "renaissance" of interest in classical antiquity at the time, encompassing all aspects of ancient learning. Scholars, artists, and architects began examining ancient remains, studying and copying surviving decorations, and analyzing the proportions of monuments. The result of this newly developed field of study was an attempt to imitate the art and architecture of antiquity, which was considered the accomplished and exemplary art of its time. Vitruvius's writings were taken very seriously as a guide to the proper application of the rules of ancient architecture, notwithstanding the fact that his work was limited to a brief period in history by his own time and experience. However, renewed interest in classical architecture was limited to Roman rather than Greek examples due to the nature of the remains available. It was not a simple copy of Roman buildings, but an attempt to understand the elements, systems of proportion and decorative implements in order to use them appropriately to their time. Architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446) and Michelozzo Michelozzi (c. 1396–1472) were among the leaders and innovators of the newly developed style, but it was not until artist-architects such as Bramante, Michelangelo and Palladio that it reached its peak. higher expressions. 6

THE CLASSIC RENAISSANCE. Renaissance architecture in Italy had a significant influence on later developments in France and England, but the discovery and excavation of ancient remains, such as the buried city of Pompeii in the mid-18th century, has also sparked a renewed interest in ancient architecture. The ancient monuments of Athens were also studied and published, as were the buildings of Palmyra, a city in the Syrian desert. The Pantheon in Paris, designed by Jacques Germain Soufflot (1709-1780) and inspired by the ancient Roman buildings in Rome, is a good example of this renewed interest. Many products of this reuse of ancient principles and ideas can be found across Europe. A prominent example is the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, designed by Karl Gotfried Langhans (1733–1808) and built in the late 18th century. It was clearly inspired by a structure in Athens, although some details have been changed. One of the most prominent names for the classic revival in America is Thomas Jefferson. Believing that Roman architecture was best suited for large buildings in the new American republic, he applied his firsthand knowledge of ancient remains and his theories to numerous projects, including the Virginia State Capitol. Greek forms were also used by other architects in the young country, as in the Bank of the United States project in Philadelphia. The architect William Strickland (1787–1854) used the Parthenon in Athens as a model and inspiration. The ideals of classical architecture have survived almost to this day. Many important buildings were designed with models from ancient Greece and Rome in mind. This is such an integral part of the development of American architecture that it almost goes unnoticed today because the forms are so familiar to us. EXISTING BUILDINGS. Architectural remains from the Greek and Roman worlds survive in various states of preservation in various locations throughout the Mediterranean. Some Roman examples, such as the Maison Carrée in Nîmes, France, which opened in the early 1st century, or the Pantheon in Rome, largely a 2nd-century structure, still stand as they were built in antiquity. These testify to the construction method with which they were built, but also to the esteem in which they were later used as Christian churches. On the contrary, the most important monuments such as the Parthenon of the Acropolis of Athens were not treated as well and are a testament to this neglect. The Parthenon was used as a church, mosque and later as a gunpowder store. It was partially destroyed when a munitions depot explosion blew away much of one side of the building in 1687. Apart from this accident, it could have been like this

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architecture and design

one of the best preserved Greek temples in the modern world. Few examples of Greek and Roman architecture also survive, although there are many lesser-known remains outside of Greece and Italy that add to modern knowledge. SURVIVING GREEK ARCHITECTURE. The ancient buildings of Greece are justifiably famous and include some examples, such as the Parthenon with the complex of buildings on the Athenian Acropolis and the temple called Theseus, also in Athens, which give modern scholars an idea of the appearance of ancient buildings. Traces of structures in various stages of preservation can be found throughout the country. For some monuments, such as the great temple of Olympias, the appearance of the building was determined only by on-site excavation, extensive studies, and paper reconstructions. In others, where only a few columns can remain standing, the plan of the structure can still be determined from the remains of the stone foundations. The most significant examples of Greek architecture outside of mainland Greece can be found in southern Italy, Sicily and the west coast of Turkey (eastern Greece). For the study of the development of early Greek architecture, temples at Paestum south of Naples and at various locations on the island of Sicily, including Selinut and Agrigento, provide essential supplementary evidence. By coincidence of conservation, these more complete or reconstructable examples exist in the former colonies of Greek city-states. When the Greeks colonized southern Italy and Sicily, they brought their architects and artists with them and imported their own art and design traditions. For most of the construction they simply used local materials. In contrast, the great Diana Temple at Ephesus in modern-day western Turkey survives only as a founding platform; it still provides enough clues to get an idea of what one of the great structures of antiquity must have looked like. SURVIVING THE ETRUSC

ROMAN ARCHITECT

DOOR. The preserved architecture of the Etruscans is limited to

buried in tombs, thousands of which have been found. Etruscan tombs were usually underground structures containing multiple chambers or rooms. Some of the architectural details incorporated into the decoration suggest that the tombs were intended to mimic the architecture of temples and houses, but few examples of domestic and religious structures survive. There are ramparts of roughly hewn stone that can be dated to Etruscan times, but the true style of the buildings can only be reconstructed from excavations. In contrast, evidence of the development of Roman architecture during the Republic

lic and the empire is extensive and a variety of structures survive in whole or in part. In addition to famous buildings such as the Pantheon and the Maison Carrée, there are many monuments in the city of Rome and on the Italian peninsula that give a vivid picture of the variety of Roman buildings. These include temples and tombs, palaces and theaters, and a variety of public structures including aqueducts, bridges, bathing complexes, markets, administrative buildings, and the like. Arguably the best-known examples are amphitheaters and ceremonial arches, exemplified by the Colosseum and Arch of Constantine in Rome. But also the cities of Ostia, the port city of Rome, and the two cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, which were saved from the eruption of Vesuvius, provide considerable evidence of urban planning, design and development. Other evidence also exists outside of Italy. As the Roman Empire grew, colonies undertook building projects, with many examples remaining partially or fully intact. To name just a few areas, entire ancient cities have been preserved in the North African colonies, only to be unearthed through excavation. Remains of civic centers, religious and political monuments, and residential complexes have been found in these locations. Across Europe, particularly in France and Spain, amphitheatres, bridges and aqueducts are testimony to the skill of Roman architects and engineers. LITERARY AND OTHER EVIDENCE. Considerable inscriptional evidence of Greek architecture and construction survives. In this material the architects are named; Contracts for quarrying, material handling, and actual construction are detailed, and wages for different classes of workers are detailed. Modern scholars are also fortunate in that the professional Roman architect Vitruvius Pollio, writing in the time of Emperor Augustus, left an extensive and detailed discussion of the surviving ancient architectural techniques. He was a practicing architect and military engineer with theoretical and practical knowledge. In his work De Architectura (On Architecture) he covered a range of subjects, from the types and properties of building materials used during the early Empire to the location of buildings in relation to their natural surroundings. His point of view was one that saw classical Greek architecture as a model to emulate, but he also left valuable insights into the nature of Etruscan buildings. What he wrote about building methods and materials, as well as the rules of proportion in architectural design, is invaluable for understanding ancient architecture. Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus) also wrote about it

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architecture and design

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Map showing Ancient Greece and Crete, the cities of Delphi, Thebes, Athens, Corinth, Mycenae, Olympia, Sparta, Troy, Knossos, important monuments, the Parthenon, the Palace of Knossos, the labyrinth of King Minos. XNR PRODUCTIONS, INC. THE GALE GROUP. REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION.

Uses of metals and stones in architecture in his encyclopedic natural history. Also, many ancient authors or travelers described the buildings they saw. Probably the most important of them was the Greek traveler Pausanias. He left priceless descriptions of what impressed him when he visited the important cities of Greece in the second century AD. In addition to inscriptions and literary descriptions, there are numerous examples of buildings or parts of buildings being depicted on coins, wall paintings, decorative ceramics and even terracotta models. These often represent structures or monuments that no longer exist and provide supplementary information that can be used to complete our knowledge of ancient architecture. SOURCES

J. J. Pollitt, The Art of Greece, 1400-31 n. Chr. C.: Quellen und Dokumente (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1965). —, The Art of Rome, 753 n. C.-337 AD C.: sources and documents (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965). 8

Vitruvius, The Ten Books of Architecture. Trans. Morris Hickey Morgan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1914).

CULTURAL BACKGROUND OF MINOAEAN AND MYCENAEAN ARCHITECTURE. Before the classical Greek architectural style flourished on the continent, there were two important periods of development in building that preceded it. The Minoan (c. 2600-1100 BC) and Mycenaean (c. 2800-1100 BC) civilizations thrived on the island of Crete and mainland Greece for almost 2,000 years. Many of his achievements in art and architecture were attributed to the Greeks of the seventh and sixth centuries BC. BC Unknown. but some reminders of their achievements in mythology and epic poetry, such as Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, survive, and some archaeological remains of their structures survive. Minoans are known to the moderns.

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architecture and design

A light source in the Minoan Palace of Festus in Crete.

COURTESY OF JAMES ALLAN EVANS.

Scholars derived the modern name they were given from the mythical king Minos, who according to mythology had a large palace at Knossos in Crete. They were an island people and seafarers who traded extensively in the eastern Mediterranean and came into contact with the cultures of Egypt and the Middle East. No doubt they knew about, and might have been influenced by, the monumental buildings constructed by the peoples of Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley. However, fortresses and temples did not play a major role in their building projects. The location of the culture on the island provided some protection against marauders and looters, so the art of fortification and fortification was not particularly developed. The idea of building shrines or temples for the gods was also not very well developed. Therefore, the most important examples of Minoan architecture were the result of a highly developed style of complex palatial design. What is known of the remains of Minoan palatial architecture, as evidenced by palaces such as that at Knossos, has been brought to light through excavations and reconstructions. MINOAN ARCHITECTURE: KNOSSOS. In Crete, the bare remnants of simple house plans fall out

The late prehistoric period was discovered, but it was not until the excavation of the Palace of Minos at Knossos by Sir Arthur Evans that the complexity and part of the development of Minoan architecture became known. The palace, probably between 1600 and 1500 BC. built. C., it is essentially a combined administrative center of government and a royal residence. Dozens of rooms, chambers, small courtyards, halls and storerooms were arranged around a large central courtyard. The labyrinthine arrangement of these elements may even have been the inspiration for the myth of the legendary labyrinth. The building was unusual in that it was several stories high and the upper stories were supported by columns. The form of these architectural elements has been debated, but there is considerable evidence that the columns were tapered in a manner that was the opposite of the normal form in later Greek architecture; they were larger at the top and gradually smaller at the bottom. Stairs and light shafts provided access and air circulation in this complex building. The palace walls were decorated with frescoes (paintings made of wet plaster) and reliefs modeled in plaster. Both the complexity of the building, which was built over a long period of time with many changes and extensions, and the colorful decoration are evidence of a

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

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View of the inner courtyard of the Minoan Palace of Festus, Crete.

highly developed civilization with considerable wealth and material resources at its disposal. ANOTHER MINOAN ARCHITECTURE. Although the Minoan civilization is best known today from the partially reconstructed ruins of the palace at Knossos, many other remains of this culture exist on the island of Crete. The most important evidence is found in Festus, Mallia and Hagia Triada. The final phase of palace construction at Festo in the south of the island is characterized by a more regular plan. While not symmetrical in its layout, it appears to follow an almost rectangular grid. One of the most important features of the palace is an open courtyard or peristyle surrounded by columns. This seems to anticipate one of the key features of the typical Greek home a thousand years later, but it is probably just an example of an interior design solution that could have been developed anywhere. The Palace of Mallia on the north coast east of Knossos is characterized by a large courtyard into which many small rooms lead in a confusing arrangement that does not appear to have been carefully planned. The labyrinth of rooms is believed to have supported an upper floor where the room layout may have been more formal. maturity 10

COURTESY OF JAMES ALLAN EVANS.

The small palace (or villa) at Haiga Triada on the south coast was designed in an "L" shaped plan without a central courtyard. This indicates that the architects of the Minoan period adapted to local conditions when designing large administrative buildings and dwellings. MYCENA ARCHITECTURE. Mycenaean cities, named after Mycenae, the capital of mainland Greece at the time, gave way to a new attitude towards architecture and building. The Mycenaeans were a dominant culture and soon spread from mainland Greece to the Greek islands, overtaking the Minoans of Crete by 1400 BC. and being a mainland culture, they began building compact citadels and fortresses protected by massive walls, rather than large, sprawling palace complexes. The citadels of Mycenae and Tiryns share many features, including a clean, compact plan, surrounding walls, and rooms that were used for both administrative and residential purposes. The interior walls were of stone with the tops of sun-dried brick. The internal support columns were of wood, the floors of plaster or gypsum, and the ornaments of plaster, as well as some

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The Lion Gate at Mycenae, Greece, named for the carving in the limestone slab above the lintel, which depicts two lions with their feet resting on an altar. © CHRIS HELLIER/CORBIS.

engraved stone. The "megaron" shape, essentially a long meeting room, is an important element in Mycenaean architecture. This general form is considered by some to be the basis for later Greek temple design. The other great architectural achievement of the Mycenaeans was the tomb of Tholos. Originally thought to be treasures or places of value, they are now thought to be the tombs of Mycenaean rulers. The tomb of Tholos was a circular underground stone structure with a sharp interior. The stone construction was achieved using the corbel system, with each upper row of stones overlapping or protruding further into the space. If a dome or corbel arch is trimmed or cut on a curve, it is virtually impossible to determine that it is not based on a real arch. The "Treasure of Atreus" at Mycenae (1300-1250 BC) is an excellent example of the tholos tomb type. It was reached by a straight passage of about 35 meters dug into the hillside. The main entrance portal was decorated with green stone half-columns, other walls of red stone. These were carved out with ornaments

Rattles, chevrons, rosettes and other geometric patterns. The enormous size of some of the stones, notably one of the lintels which has been estimated at over 100 tons, indicates a level of expertise and organizational skill that made it possible to shape, move and manipulate extraordinary building elements. Some scholars believe that this ability to work large stones, also seen in citadel building, is related to the work of contemporary Hittites in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey). The remains of a palace were found at Pylos in the southwest. It is a complex somewhat reminiscent of Minoan architecture, with courtyards, rooms, stairways and storage areas. There was an original Megaron, but it's not the focus of the plan. Two phases of construction can be seen, with an extension becoming the most important part of the building. In the last phase there is a larger and more formal megaron with a central fireplace and four pillars that once supported a four-sided porch. This large audience hall was luxuriously decorated with frescoes and a mosaic floor, indicating the wealth and power of the rulers of Pylos.

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THE RUINS OF MYCENA INTRODUCTION:

In the second century AD, the Greek traveler Pausanias, who can only be described as an antiquary, a person who studies ancient remains, left an account of the places he saw and attempted to explain them historically. His descriptions of the monuments of Greece are an invaluable source and reference. It often describes the way in which a temple area was decorated and gives the names of the artists responsible for the sculpture as well as the architects. His historical explanations of events are sometimes a bit fanciful, but they were based on historical knowledge available to him at the time. For example, his description of the citadel of Mycenae and its gate decorated with lions illustrates the fact that remains from a period of more than a thousand years earlier in Greek history were still visible and still identified with the people who made them.

It was envy that drove the Argives to destroy Mycenae. For at the time of the Persian invasion the Ar-

THE DARK AGE. Mycenaean fortress centers were built around the beginning of the 11th century BC. destroyed. when the Dorians began to invade Greece. Like any invading culture, the Dorians brought their own cultural styles with them, and Mycenaean and Minoan influences began to be suppressed. Many historians have dubbed this the "Dark Ages" of Greek history, as the Dorians did little to promote the cultural aspects of society and architecture that existed in the 8th and 7th centuries BC. mainly adopted Doric traditions. in this period in the Mycenaean style. As Greek culture grew in the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. When they began building their famous temples and structures, many of the architectural designs of the Mycenaeans and Minoans were lost, but many were the basic elements of what many scholars refer to as architecture. .classical Greek. SOURCES

Reynold Higgins, Minoan and Mycenaean Art. Revised Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981). AW Lawrence, Greek Architecture. Rev. RA Tomlinson (New York: Penguin Books, 1983): 35-70. ALSO SEE

Greece 12

Religion: the first Greeks on the continent

da did not move, but the Mycenaeans sent eighty men to Thermopylae, who took part in the conquest of the Lacedaemonians. This desire for distinction led them to ruin and angered the Argives. However, parts of the city walls remain, including the gate where the lions are kept. These are also believed to be the work of the Cyclops who built the Wall of Tiryns for Proetus. In the ruins of Mycenae there is a well called Persea; There are also subterranean chambers of Atreus and his sons where their treasures were kept. There is the tomb of Atreus, along with the tombs of those who returned from Troy with Agamemnon and were killed by Aegisth after giving them a feast. Cassandra's tomb is claimed by the Lacedaemonians who dwell around Amyclae. Agamemnon has his tomb, as does Eurymedon the charioteer, while another is shared by Teledamus and Pelops, twin sons, it is said, of Cassandra, who killed Aegisthus as babies after their parents. SOURCE: Pausanias, Description of Greece. Trans. W.H.S. Jones (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1918): 331.

GREEK ARCHITECTURE GREEK BUILDING TECHNIQUES. Almost all of the great Greek architecture used the simple "mullion and lintel" system. In this type of construction, two or more piers (columns, piers or walls) support horizontal elements of limited length due to the strength of the stone, which can support its own weight. The "mullion" is the vertical structural member and the "lintel" is the bridging element designed to protect the openings or support the roof of the building. The Greeks mastered this style of building when they developed methods of quarrying stone and transporting and handling large masses of stone. Ingenious devices for lifting and lifting building materials were invented. From inscriptional evidence we know that the pulley block, a device we take for granted today, was used in wooden lifting constructions. These early cranes had two, three, or four legs, depending on the situation and weight requirements. Systems for lifting rocks were developed that used rope for lifting, while crowbars and crowbars were used for placement. These devices seem commonplace today, but in their time they represented technological advances over the old technique of moving rocks aloft on sleds and ramps. Wooden beams were used to support and form the roof structure, which was usually tiled. In residential architecture, in houses, shops and other functional buildings, construction was much simpler. He

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The treasury (storehouse) of the Athenians at Delphi, Greece, built after the Athenians defeated the Persians at Marathon in 490 BC. PHOTO BY HECTOR WILLIAMS. © HECTOR WILLIAMS.

It usually consisted of walls of baked or rough bricks, set on foundations of rough stone. The tools used in most architectural work were simple but state of the art at the time. Architects and engineers used measuring lines, angles, plumb bobs, and spirit levels to maintain construction accuracy. Masons used hammers, axes, files and chisels to work the stone. Iron tools were suitable for shaping marble and limestone. THE FIRST TEMPLES. The history of Greek architecture is essentially the history of the development of the Greek temple. In the Bronze Age and in the Minoan and Mycenaean fortress periods of Crete and mainland Greece, the temple was not the main place of worship of the gods. A dwelling place or center of worship for the deity was not defined by an elaborate structure, so the importance attached to the building of the temple signaled a new and different attitude towards worship. One important consideration must be remembered. The temple in Greek culture was not a building to house groups of believers. It was the house of the god or goddess with a statue of the deity and maybe

some additional rooms that functioned as a treasury, but the rites and sacrifices offered to the god were performed on an altar in front of the temple. The earliest examples of temples from the Greek period can only be deduced from archaeological evidence. There are ceramic models of one-room buildings with gable roofs from the 8th century BC. which give an indication of the design of the ancient temple. The idea of surrounding a temple with one or more rows of columns seems to have been a purely Greek invention. In other ancient cultures, notably Egypt, pillars were mainly used in temples, sometimes in great abundance. In Greek architecture, the exposed column was one of the most characteristic elements. Probably the oldest verifiable rectangular temple with a surrounding colonnade is the temple of the goddess Hera on the island of Samos. It was dated to the end of the 8th century BC. dated. At that time the columns were made of wood and rested on stone bases. The temple was built in the seventh century B.C. B.C., made slightly larger and modified to bring it closer to the temple

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

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Ruins of the Temple of Hera at Olympia, Greece, dating from the early 6th century BC.

COURTESY OF JAMES ALLAN

EVANS.

eventual proportion and design of the temples of the classical period. OLD DORIC STYLE. Around 580 BC A Doric-style temple dedicated to the goddess Artemis was built on the island of Corfu, off the north-west coast of mainland Greece. Although it has been completely quarried, enough blocks of limestone have been found to give clues as to its size: about 77 feet wide and about twice that long. Much of the pediment, the triangular space at the end beneath the gabled roof, has been recovered to show that it was decorated with relief carvings depicting a gorgon and a battle between gods and giants. This is one of the earliest examples of pedimental sculpture that can be determined. Around the same time, a temple to the goddess Hera was built at Olympia. Only the superstructure survived, but it can be deduced that it had sixteen columns on the sides and six on the front, the corner columns being counted twice. The columns did not have a separate base but rested on the upper step of the platform. Columns of the so-called Doric type were fluted and provided with a series of shallow vertical channels.

nels-y tapers upwards. The capital or top of the column consisted of a curved, pillow-shaped part with a square block on top. The plan of the Temple of Olympia includes a pronaos, a cella and the earliest known example of an opisthodomus. The cella was the central room or sanctuary of the temple, and the pronaos was the small vestibule in front of it. The opisthodomo is a small porch at the back of the cell. There were two rows of internal pillars to support the roof and evidence of hooked pillars also being attached to the side walls. This temple originally had wooden pillars, which were gradually replaced with stone. As a result, they come from many different eras and styles, dating back to the 6th century BC. dating back. until Roman times. In the second century AD Pausanias noticed a wooden pillar that was still standing and had not been replaced. The walls of this temple were made of sun-dried bricks on a stone foundation. The architrave or base of the roof structure connecting the columns was apparently made of wood, and the roof itself was covered with terracotta tiles. A large limestone plinth was found inside the cell, probably for the cult statue of the goddess or similar

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

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Temple of Hera at Paestum in Italy. Built in the mid 6th century B.C.

Double statue of Hera and Zeus. This ancient temple is important not only for its design and proportions, but also for the evidence of temples originally built with wooden elements that were replaced with more durable stone constructions. In the Doric order, the frieze, the horizontal band above the architrave, was decorated with a pattern of alternating triglyphs and metopes. The triglyph is a single block with its face carved to resemble three vertical bars. A metope is a rectangular slab that can be plain, but also decorated with painting or relief carving. Some think that the triglyph design was reminiscent of the ends of beams in wooden architecture, but this explanation is not accepted by all architectural historians. The Temple of Apollo at Corinth from around 540 BC. It is the only example of a 6th-century mainland temple that still has some columns. Each pillar is a monolith carved from a single block, about 21 feet high, and composed of an originally finite porous limestone.

DAS ART/GARDEN-ARCHIV.

covered with a layer of stucco. There were six pillars at the end and fifteen on each side, making the length two and a half times the width. The platform under the colonnades rose in a slight convex curve. This is the first known example where this adjustment was made to correct the optical illusion that causes the baseline to appear curved. The interior of this temple was divided into two successive chambers, each entered through its own portico. Other surviving examples of 6th-century Doric architecture can be found in the Greek colonies of Sicily and southern Italy. In order to fully appreciate the early development of the Doric style it is necessary to examine some of them. Three well-preserved temples at Paestum south of Naples, including one to Hera from the mid-6th century. It has long been known as "Basilica" and is still referred to by that name in some publications. The entire enclosing colonnade is still standing and the architrave is still in place, but the walls have completely disappeared. it was nine

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

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Temple E, probably dedicated to Hera, at Selinunte, Sicily. It began at the beginning of the 6th century BC. CE

Columns at each end and eighteen on a side. This is somewhat unusual as an odd number on the facade divides it in half. The cella contained a central row of columns the same size as the colonnade. A feature of this early stage in the development of the Doric order is that the columns of this temple were radically tapered from bottom to top to give the structure an elastic appearance. FIRST IONIAN ARCHITECTURE. The Doric and Ionic architectural orders have several differences, but the most important is the position, shape, and proportion of the columns. The Doric column stands directly on the temple platform; The Ionic has a base that is usually made up of several elements that can even contain carved decorations. Compared to the simpler Doric capital, the Ionic capital has a pair of volutes (ornaments in the form of a spiral or volute), which indicate construction in materials other than stone and may also reflect the influence of West Asian or Egyptian cultures. The Ionic column is generally thinner in proportion to its height than the Doric, 16th

THE ARCHIVE OF ART/DALGI ORTI.

and Ionic temples generally have only two tiers, while Doric have three tiers. Two temples built simultaneously in the mid-6th century are examples of the early Ionic style and are also among the first great temples in Greek architecture. One was a second temple dedicated to Hera on the island of Samos and the other to Artemis at Ephesus in eastern Greece, now on the west coast of Turkey. The temple at Ephesus was paid for in part by King Croesus of Lydia, whose wealth became proverbial, "rich as Croesus." At Ephesus, the Temple of Artemis had a double colonnade with 21 columns on one side, measuring nearly 360 feet. This huge building is built of marble and has a wooden roof covered with terracotta tiles. Some of the drums on the lower pillar were decorated with relief carvings. The temple of Hera on Samos also had a double colonnade and faced east, as was the normal orientation of Greek temples. The Temple of Artemis, on the other hand, faced west. This may have been influenced by an earlier shrine at the Ephesians site. A later temple on the site of Samos, begun at

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

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Exterior view of the Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens from the east.

530 BC C., was the largest Greek temple known to modern scholars. It measured 179 feet by 365 feet and had columns 63 feet high. The columns themselves were made of limestone, but their capitals and bases were made of marble, presumably to preserve the valuable marble. 5TH CENTURY TEMPLES The 5th century effectively worked to refine the relationship of architectural elements and proportions, resulting in the "classical" appearance of Greek temple architecture. The ideal ratio of the number of columns from end to end was set at six to thirteen. Marble gained importance as the main building block, replacing limestone where it was available. An important example of grafting developed from the 6th to the 5th century BC. Architecture is that dedicated to the goddess Afaya on the island of Aegina, southwest of Athens. Much of it survives, including part of the gable carving, allowing for a reliable restoration. Its hilltop location is a reminder that the site of a Greek temple was often chosen for its imposing height and views of the sea or surrounding countryside. The temple had columns six by twelve, still not the ideal ratio of six to thirteen BC.

FOTOGRAFIA DE HECTOR WILLIAMS. © HECTOR WILLIAMS.

Come. The interior of the cella in this temple had two rows of smaller columns supporting a second smaller row above. This two-story inner colonnade was not unique and can be found in some other temples. Its purpose was to support the construction of the roof. As it was not considered appropriate for the inner pillars to be taller than the outer ones, the solution was to have two overlapping levels of smaller pillars to achieve the height between floor and ceiling. This arrangement can also be seen in the Temple of Hera (believed to be dedicated to Poseidon) at Paestum in southern Italy. This temple is probably the best-preserved example of a Greek temple and was also built in the early to mid-5th century. The external decoration of the temple at Aegina included marble tiling on the roof edge and gargoyles in the shape of a lion, palmette-shaped prefixes, and a considerable amount of color detail. Although there is some debate about the amount of decorative color used in Greek architecture, many examples of surviving painted surfaces have been found, giving considerable support to the idea that these structures were not of the bright, austere color of marble or limestone, as it currently exists. .

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PAUSANIAS DESCRIBES THE INTRODUCTION OF THE PARTHENON:

It is often the description written by a traveler in ancient times that gives us a real sense of what monuments looked like in their day. When Pausanias, the Greek traveler and historian, visited Athens in the second century AD. and climbed to the top of the Acropolis, saw the Parthenon in a condition that must have been close to its original condition. As is usual in his writing, he attempted to identify the themes of the decoration and to explain their historical or mythological significance.

Upon entering the temple called the Parthenon, all the sculptures you see on the so-called pediment relate to the birth of Athena, those on the back pediment represent the land dispute between Athens and Poseidon. The statue itself is made of ivory and gold. In the center of his helmet is placed an image of the Sphinx, the story of the Sphinx which I shall tell when I come to my description of Boeotia and at all times

THE ACROPOLIS. The buildings of the Acropolis, literally "Upper City", in Athens have a long history dating back to Mycenaean times. The oldest temple to the goddess Athena on the site dates from at least the 7th century BC. Originally a fortified fortress, the limestone plateau at the top of the town with its main altar remained the center of worship of the tutelary goddess after its military importance had waned. At the beginning of the 5th century B.C. CE The Athenians began a building project to replace the old temple and build a new propylon - gateway - to the sanctuary. This plan was thwarted by the Persian invasion and the destruction and sack of the Acropolis in 480 BC. interrupted. Only in the middle of the century plans for a new temple of the city goddess were realized. This new temple is known to modern scholars as the Parthenon, so named because it was dedicated to a particular aspect of the goddess Athena Parthenos: Athena the Maiden or Athena the Virgin. Their cult center eventually contained several important buildings in addition to the main temple. These are the Propylaea or the entrance to the Acropolis, the Temple of Athena Nike or Victoria and the Erechtheum, a building designed to organize several cults in a single structure. THE PARTHENON. Under the leadership of Pericles, the old building plan of the 480s was revived in the middle of the century. The architects of the new Temple of Athena were 18 years old

Side of the helmet are embossed griffins. These griffins, says Aristeas de Proconneso in his poem, fight for gold with the Arimaspi beyond the Issedones. The gold the griffins guard, he says, comes from the earth; the Arimaspi are all males born with one eye; Griffins are lion-like animals but with the beak and wings of an eagle. I won't say anything more about the taps. The statue of Athena is erect, with a cloak reaching to her feet, and on her breast is the head of Medusa carved in ivory. He holds a statue of Victory about four cubits high and in the other hand a spear; at his feet is a shield, and beside the spear is a serpent. That serpent would be Erichthonius. The pedestal depicts the birth of Pandora in relief. Hesiod and others sang how this Pandora was the first wife; Before Pandora was born, there was no female gender. The only portrait statue I recall seeing here is one of Emperor Hadrian and, at the entrance, one of Iphicrates, who accomplished many notable achievements. SOURCE: Pausanias, Description of Greece. Trans. W.H.S. Jones (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1918): 23, 25.

Ictinus and Callicrates. The cult image in the temple was the work of Phidias, who probably also created the decorative program for the entire building and is traditionally considered the general director of the works. The temple was begun in 447 and opened in 438, but the sculptural decoration was not fully completed until 432. The building was later used as a Byzantine church, a Catholic church and a Muslim mosque. In 1678 an explosion of gunpowder stored in the cell destroyed much of the center of the temple, which by then was in good condition. In the period 1801–03, English collector Lord Elgin obtained permission from Turkish officials to remove part of the sculpture, known as the Elgin Marbles, which are now in the British Museum (and a source of controversy with the current Greek government ). . . These included some of the pediment figures and most of the relief frieze, which is considered one of the most important examples of the 5th century BC. apply. greek art. The building itself was constructed of Pentelic marble on a limestone base partially covering that of the previous temple. Some of the pillar drums from the ruined temple were in good condition and were used in the new one, which dictated the size of the pillars (34 feet and a quarter high) but not the overall proportion. The Parthenon has eight columns at the ends and seventeen on the sides because it's a bit wider.

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

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A view of the Acropolis of Athens from the southwest with the Propylaea (monumental entrance).

COURTESY OF JAMES ALLAN

EVANS.

Part of what had been the rule. It is possible that this extra width was intended to accommodate the interior view of the extraordinary colossal gold and ivory statue of Athena in the cella. The plan included the peripteral colonnade, front and rear six-columned porticoes, and a chamber behind the cella, which may have served as a treasury. The cell had a two-story colonnade on the sides and back, presumably to view the statue of Athena. By the mid-fifth century, Greek architects reached a level of design with refinement and harmony of proportions rarely equaled. This was done over time through trial and error, taking advantage of technological advances in construction and experimenting extensively with the visual effects of size, shape and relationships. Made visual improvements to fix optical illusions. Thus, the main horizontal elements of the building facade (the stylobate platform and the entablature of the superstructure) gently curved downwards from the center. Columns and walls slope slightly inwards. Columns taper upwards in slightly curved ecstasy and down to column depth

The vein is flatter at the top. The Doric column of the fifth century BC. was very refined compared to its predecessor a hundred years ago, and its curved profile is much more subtle. Many scholars have seen this as an incorporation of Ionic aspects into the Doric style. Much has been said about the ideal mathematical proportions that Greek architects devised to define the visual relationships of building parts. Several examples of this principle in action can be seen in the Parthenon. The ratio between width and length of the temple is 9:4; the spacing between the columns in relation to their diameter has the same ratio of 9:4, which is also evident in other aspects of the building. The use of simple, repeating proportions and geometric relationships provided visual order and harmony, resulting in an architectural masterpiece. THE PROPILE. The Propylaea was the great ceremonial gate and entrance to the precincts of the Acropolis. It replaced an earlier structure, just as the Parthenon replaced an earlier temple. It was the work of the architect Mnesicles and began in 437

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

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The Erechtheion of Athens; the east view.

COURTESY OF JAMES ALLAN EVANS.

BC,

after the construction of the Parthenon was completed and work on it was completed in 432 BC. were set. The Propylaea was made entirely of marble and took five years to build but was never fully completed to plan. In addition to the large portico with a wide central corridor, it had six-columned porticoes on the external and internal sides and was intended to have two large rooms flanking the portico. Pausanias described one of these rooms as a "picture gallery", but it has also been suggested that it was a formal dining room. The building was constructed entirely of expensive marble, and was so massive that some of the roof beams had to span fifteen feet in length. Because of their size, they are estimated to weigh more than eleven tons. This ability to handle large weights at height indicates a well developed system of construction techniques. THE TEMPLE OF NIKE AND THE ERECHTHEUM. At the top right of the Propylaea, construction of a small temple began about five years after work on the ceremonial entrance was stopped. This compact structure was dedicated to the goddess of victory, Athena Nike. It was designed in the Ionic style with four slender columns at each end. The cella was inserted between two pillars or square pillars, connected to the side walls by bronze lattices. A carved frieze depicting the Greeks fighting the Persians adorned the four sides of the entablature, a more typically Ionic element.

this in the Doric style. The upper pediment had carved figures, as can be seen from the annexes, and a three-sided carved parapet was added later. Another important building on the Ionian-style Acropolis is the Erechtheion. It takes its name from Erechtheus, a legendary king of Athens, whose palace is said to have once stood there. Begun in 421 and completed in 405, it is probably the most unique structure in the complex due to its irregular layout. This was perhaps the result of the need to bring together several shrines or places of worship. There were three inner chambers and three vestibules or porticoes of different sizes and heights. On the south side, the portico had six caryatids, architectural supports in the form of human figures, supporting the entablature instead of columns. These famous statues of women were transferred to museum protection and replaced by copies. One of the important lessons to be learned from the Erechtheum is the fact that Greek architects knew how to adapt to the needs of an unusual situation. THE TEMPLE OF OLYMPIC ZEUS. South-east of the Acropolis in Athens was built around 520 BC. started construction of a large temple dedicated to Olympian Zeus. C., but it remained unfinished and only the platform was used to finish it much later. Under Antiochus IV, king of Syria, work in

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

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The Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens, begun in the 6th century BC. but completed by Emperor Hadrian (AD 117–138).

CUT-

JAMES ALLAN EVANS THESE.

ple in the second century B.C. but it was not finally completed until 131 C.E. in the time of the Roman Emperor Hadrian. It is believed to have originally been planned in the Doric style, but when completed it had elements of the Corinthian order, including ornate floral Corinthian capitals. The original plan called for a double row of columns in the perimeter colonnade, with a third row at each end. This was probably influenced by other great ancient temples such as that of Hera at Ephesus. The Temple of Olympian Zeus was one of the largest in Athens, measuring 135 feet by 353.5 feet with columns that were 57 feet high. Its completion hundreds of years after its founding was likely the result of Emperor Hadrian's admiration for Greek culture. THE GREEK THEATER. While the temple form is the most important architectural type in Greek history, there are other types of structures to consider. Besides the temple, there were many other types of public buildings, monuments, altars and tombs that need to be mentioned. The theater was perhaps the second most typical expression of Greek architecture.

textured design. All festivals, sporting competitions and theatrical performances took place in the open air. Originally, even the assembly of the citizens of Athens was held outdoors on the steep rocky outcrop known as the Pnyx. This allowed participants to see and hear speakers who were at a lower level. It follows that performances honoring the god Dionysus took place in a hole where the audience could sit on the sloping hill. Throughout the history of Greek drama, most theaters were built where they could take advantage of the natural hills. The beginnings of drama were in choral dances, so the most important part of the theater was the circular orchestra, which literally means "dance ground". The body of the auditorium or theatron consisted of a semicircular array of rows of gently sloping stone seats. As the idea of dramatic theater developed and the number of actors increased, it became necessary to provide a stage with some kind of support. This was called a skene and provided a soundboard to project the actors' voices and a rudimentary stage. The idea of the theater as a special building.

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Hellenistic Kourion Theater in Cyprus.

COURTESY OF JAMES ALLAN EVANS.

appears to be in the late 6th and early 5th centuries B.C. to have developed. CE, but one of the oldest still found is the Theater of Dionysus on the southern slope of the Acropolis. It was later rebuilt or remodeled in a series of remodeling in the 4th century and Roman Imperial times. One of the best preserved examples of a theater is at Epidaurus on the east coast of southern Greece. According to Pausanias, Polykletos the Younger was the architect of this theatre. It was built around the year 350 when the essential elements of theatrical design were formalized. The auditorium, which is little more than a semicircle, is cut into the slope. The stone seats are divided into blocks or wedge-shaped sections, with a horizontal aisle separating the lower part from the upper part, which is steeper and has higher seats. The seat design even offers some legroom underneath to allow spectators to make room for passers-by. The lower seats were for special attendants and had a backrest and armrests. In some theaters these seats of dignitaries were almost like thrones with intricately carved decoration. There was probably an altar in the center of the or22

Chestra as evidenced by a stone plinth found at the site. The stage building must have been tall, again judging by the remaining foundations. This theater could hold between 12,000 and 15,000 people who were seated relatively comfortably and who seemed to be able to get in and out easily. The design of Greek theaters changed somewhat to accommodate other types of dramatic performance as they developed, but the basic parts remained the same and were standard throughout the Greek world. SPECIAL BUILDINGS. One of the most important buildings in everyday Greek life was the stoa, a one- or two-story building with a long colonnade that could house shops and also serve as an informal meeting place. The Stoa of Attalus in the Agora (open market) in Athens has been reconstructed from archaeological evidence and serves as a good example of this type. Such pillar structures offered protection from the weather to the public in their daily activities and were therefore found in religious complexes and markets. Other public buildings were specifically designed as meeting places for citizens' councils, meeting rooms for a specific cult, and so on

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Interior view of the Stoa of Attalus in the Ancient Agora of Athens, Greece. Originally built as a gift from King Attalus II of Pergamum (159-138 BC). PHOTO BY HECTOR WILLIAMS. © HECTOR WILLIAMS.

to informal spaces for social clubs. Functional buildings included houses with fountains where people would fill their jars with water. These are often illustrated in Greek vase painting. A special type of building was the clock tower. The only surviving example is the so-called "Tower of the Winds" preserved in Athens. It was founded in the 1st century B.C. It is an octagonal (eight-sided) building with carved reliefs depicting personifications of the winds at the top of each side. In addition to space for a water clock and a reservoir, there were sundials on the sides and a weather vane on top. HOUSES AND URBAN PLANNING. The typical Greek house responded to the need for an enclosed space that offered privacy and protection. The normal living space plan centered on an open courtyard with peristyle or terraces. Several examples have been excavated and generally follow the same layout, consisting of an entrance hall with a small room to one side and a central courtyard with rooms of various sizes to the front. These houses were generally single storey and laid out in a square plan, with adobe walls over stone or

rubble foundation. Floors in special areas, such as the dining room, can be decorated with mosaics. The dining room was also often equipped with platforms for reclining guests. Baths were sometimes paved and fitted with terracotta bathtubs, but other sanitary fixtures have rarely been found during excavations. The doors of houses were of wood, and modern scholars know from depictions in vase paintings that they were decorated with metal knobs. The regular arrangement of dwellings in an ordered city plan was introduced in the early fifth century B.C. popular. Greek cities were designed with provisions for public gatherings and trading places (the agora or public square), as well as cult centers and sanctuaries that housed temples and shrines. Cities were typically surrounded by a protective wall with towers, moats, and defensible gates. Such fortifications were the result of the need to protect against attack and provide a sense of security. SOURCES

A. H. Lawrence, Greek Architect. Pfr. RA Tomlinson (New York: Penguin Books, 1983).

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temples and their sites. It should always be remembered that Vitruvius died at the end of the first century BC. wrote. and he had a desire to explain and apply classical styles in the work of his own time. He was a practicing architect and had in-depth knowledge of materials, working techniques and other areas of knowledge such as B. Site planning, which was part of the necessary training of an architect. His motives and the time in which he was writing, early in the reign of Caesar Augustus, influenced his attitude. As one of the few ancient authors whose writings on architecture have survived, he was highly regarded during the Renaissance. Architects of the time relied on his work to explain as clearly as possible the ancient styles and techniques available to them.

The Horologion, known as the "Tower of the Winds", in Athens, Greece, which served as a sundial, water clock and weather vane (built between the 2nd and 1st centuries BC). THE ART ARCHIVE / DAGLI ORTI.

GMA Richter, Arte griego (London: Phaidon Press, 1967): 7–44.

Fashion: Clothing in Classical Greece; Religion: The gods of Olympus; Religion: Worship of the Gods: Sacrifices and Temples

ALSO SEE

BACKGROUND OF TRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE. The study of Etruscan architecture is primarily the study of tomb design, as most surviving evidence consists of underground tombs. The study of architectural types such as temples and other public buildings cannot be based on standing buildings, as can be the case with Greek or Roman materials. Archaeological finds, which mainly consist of foundations and the remains of parts of buildings, should be used here. However, descriptions of ancient authors, notably Vitruvius, supplement modern knowledge. His De Architectura (On Architecture) is a particularly useful reference work as it describes, among other things, his understanding of the basic rules of Etruscan design and construction 24.

MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES. Early Etruscan architecture used the adobe and adobe technique, a method of construction in which sticks were bound together with a layer of adobe. Evidence of tomb decorations imitating living structures indicates that carpentry was used as early as the 6th century BC. was used. when building a house. Other evidence shows that the Etruscans used tuff blocks and ashlar masonry in foundations, buildings, and walls. "Toba" is a porous volcanic rock common in Italy and "sillar" describes large square stones. There was also adobe and half-timbered construction on stone foundations, a technique that uses wood to frame and raw brick to fill in the spaces between frames. Mud and wooden bricks were the main building materials for temple walls throughout most of Etruscan history. The lack of abundant physical evidence to understand temple architecture can be attributed in part to the transience of the materials used. THE ETRUSCAN TEMPLE. Our main knowledge of Etruscan temple architecture comes from Vitruvius, who described their design and construction in as much detail as he understood them. In addition to the sparse archaeological evidence and literary sources on the planning and construction of the temple, there are temple imitations found in tombs and on tomb facades and miniature copies used as votive offerings. Also known as the Italo-Etruscan temple, the Etruscan-style temple had a distinct form that resisted the growing influence of Greek architecture. The Etruscan temple had a more open plan than the Greek, influenced in part by the need to observe natural phenomena such as the flight of birds in divination. Etruscan temple material has never changed as much as Greek construction, which used wooden elements

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Mentos were later replaced with stones. Materials in Etruria continued to be stone-based wood, with significant use of terracotta for decorative elements and tiling. One of the standard plans seems to have been a simple structure with a tripartite cell, interpreted as a provision for the worship of a triad of gods (Jupiter, Juno and Minerva). There are also examples of facilities with one or two rooms, depending on the number of deities worshiped in a particular place. The main part of the temple opened onto a portico supported by columns. The temple was usually built on a podium or platform accessed by a staircase. The raised platform and stairways remained a feature of later Roman temple architecture, in contrast to the Greek preference for a closer visual relationship with the floor plan. Etruscan tombs. Early Etruscan burials were of two main types: a pit burial with an urn containing the ashes of the deceased, or a pit burial for the remains. Around 700 BC more developed tombs began to appear. These too were of two general types. One was a type of chamber tomb somewhat similar in design to the Mycenaean tholos tombs, with a dome or "beehive" shape of cantilevered masonry. The shape varied and could be round or square. Ancillary rooms offered space for the remains of other family members or personal belongings. This type of tomb could house the sarcophagi of the deceased, as well as some funerary furniture and personal belongings. The mound or mound that this type covered became a feature of the landscape and made the location of the tomb conspicuous. Around 400 BC Cremation of the dead became a more regular practice, and the architecture of tombs underwent a gradual change. Instead of the stone-built chamber covered by a mound, the tomb was carved into the rock or tuff slope. Imitations of wooden architectural elements were carved on the facade and in the tombs. Instead of space for sarcophagi, shelves of cremation urns were provided to hold the cremated remains of various family members. The decoration of the walls of tombs of both types included reliefs and paintings. In addition to the feast of the dead, Etruscan tomb paintings also featured scenes from Greek mythology. URBAN PLANNING AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. Etruscan towns and cities were situated to take advantage of water supplies and defensive positions, as was the case with most early communities in antiquity. Access to the sea was important, but most settlements were remote.

far enough inland to offer some protection from intruders from the sea. Defensive city walls did not seem to be an important part of urban planning if the site choice offered sufficient security. An ancient tradition credits the Etruscans with inventing the city plan, in which streets intersect at right angles, forming an east-west-north-south grid. Although this urban planning system became very popular with the Romans, there is still insufficient evidence that it was an Etruscan innovation in mainland Italy. Etruscan houses from the early 7th century BC. They were typically oval in plan and placed to take advantage of the site, not according to a grid plan. These houses were built of adobe and adobe and had a thatched roof. From the middle of the 7th century, rectangular houses appear. These were built on a stone foundation with wooden frames and raw mudbricks. Gradually, the house plans evolved from a spacious floor plan with an entrance hall and a few rooms to a house with a long entrance hall leading to a courtyard surrounded by several rooms. This type of courtyard house continued in later Roman dwellings with an atrium, a larger and more formal central courtyard. SOURCES

Axel Boëthius und J. B. Ward-Perkins, arquitetura etrusca e romana (Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin Books, 1970). Friedhelm Prayon, „Arquitectura“, in Etruscan Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies. ed. Larissa Bonfante (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1986): 174–201.

BACKGROUND OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Roman architecture is essentially a hybrid of elements inherited from the Etruscans combined with external influences from the Greeks. For example, indigenous Etruscan building traditions can be seen in the earliest substructures of the Capitoline Temple in Rome. With such archaeological evidence supplemented by ancient descriptions, this temple can be identified as of the type described by Vitruvius as typically Etruscan, consisting mainly of a large structure with a deep portico supported by columns. In contrast, the Temple of Apollo at Pompeii, probably built at the end of the 2nd century BC. was built. C.E., is a typical example of a temple showing Greek influence in its plan. Early Etruscan and Roman art and architecture were heavily influenced by Greek advances, particularly structures constructed in Greek times.

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Urban planning was not only invented by the Greeks, it seems to have been an almost universal need of peoples throughout history to impose some order on their communities through the use of a general plan where the local terrain permitted. This orderly arrangement of cities and towns can be seen in many parts of the ancient world in cultures as diverse as ancient China and Egypt. Leopold Arnaud, a respected professor of architecture, explained in an essay entitled "Social Organization and City Planning" that it would be a mistake to attribute the invention of urban design solely to the Greeks. He said the idea of a rectangular pattern for urban planning is very old. The system's origins may have evolved from the method of plowing a field or establishing a military camp, but it was a practical arrangement and the idea could have developed in many different places independently. In Egypt, during the Old Kingdom (2175-2134 BC), the streets of the City of the Dead at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza were laid out in a grid pattern, with the streets crossing at right angles. It was probably imitated

Colonies in southern Italy and Sicily. Ultimately, however, Rome's contributions to the development of architectural design were of a different nature. The development of new materials and techniques enabled revolutionary advances in the creation of monumental structures and particularly in the treatment of architectural interiors. Greek construction, whether of wood or stone, relied heavily on the system of posts and lintels (columns supporting a crossbar), resulting in a style that created a strong horizontal sense of stability and solidity. . The exterior of a Greek temple usually featured an orderly and carefully planned arrangement of its parts as seen from every vantage point, but the interior was a less important consideration. With the development of concrete as a building material from the 2nd century B.C. Roman architects and engineers were free to experiment with construction on colossal scale, enclosing vast interior spaces, and creating a fundamentally new and wildly inventive style of architecture. ROMAN BUILDING TECHNIQUES. Stone construction as practiced by the Greeks required skilled masons and bricklayers, the help of engineers and masons to carry out the actual construction, and little else. Some carpentry was required for the wooden beams to support the roof and weavers were needed to finish the covering. 26

and it looked like the arrangement used in cities for living. There are other examples of urban planning in Egypt found in archaeological excavations that show this pattern continued throughout Egyptian history. The plan attributed to the Greeks was not developed until late in their history during the time of Alexander the Great and his successors in the Hellenistic period (late 4th century to late 1st century BC). This does not mean that the Greeks learned urban planning from the Egyptians, but simply that the same form of organization was seen as workable in both cultures. The Roman city plan was similar to that of the Greeks and may have them to thank for it. In a Roman community, the two main streets were called cardo, running north to south, and decumanus, running east to west. Other streets run parallel to the cardo and decumanus, forming a regular block system. However, great cities like Rome and Athens were not planned according to an organized scheme. They simply grew and expanded from small settlements over a long history. Attempts were made in both cities at different times to bring order to their plans, but without general success.

In contrast, the newly developed techniques of the Romans required a broader range of specialists for the greatly expanded construction program. Because the concrete is liquid at first, its use requires the collaboration of skilled carpenters to build frameworks and moulds, in addition to albañiles for some of the stone elements, such as cements and door frames, tiling and tiling for parts of the structure and roof. , plumbers for drainage systems, plasterers and painters for finished work, and artists/decorators for murals and mosaic floors. In ancient Rome, the need for this variety of skills led to the development of specialized work groups or guilds that could provide the necessary training and continuity of experience. The early use of concrete by the Romans may have been due to a compacted earth construction method, but it is more likely to have evolved from the use of clay to bind layers of brick or stone together. After discovering that fragments of rubble could be bonded together by pouring a liquid mortar over them, the next natural step was to construct wooden forms that would hold the mortar until it hardened. Basically, Roman mortar was made from lime, and the best lime mortar used volcanic ash as an aggregate. Casting structural elements out of concrete instead of carving them out of stone gave Roman architects freedom

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INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTS TRAINING:

The only Roman textbook on the art and science of ancient architecture was written by Vitruvius Pollio, who lived during the reign of Emperor Augustus. In The Ten Books of Architecture he provides detailed treatment of subjects such as urban planning, architectural styles, building materials and construction methods. As he was both a practicing architect and an enlightened man, the information he left is particularly valuable, not only for the study of Greek and Roman architecture, but also for the descriptions he provides of extinct Etruscan architecture. The work of Vitruvius has also been described as a practical guide to becoming a Roman architect. In this section he lists what training an architect should have.

1. The architect must be endowed with knowledge of many branches of study and various kinds of learning, for according to his judgement, all work done by the other arts is examined. This knowledge is the child of practice and theory. Practice is the constant and regular pursuit of an occupation in which manual work is carried out with all the necessary materials according to the design of a drawing. Theory, in turn, is the ability to demonstrate and explain the products of skill in the principles of proportion. 2. It follows that architects who claimed craftsmanship without erudition could never attain a position of authority commensurate with their efforts, while those who relied only on theory and erudition evidently pursued the shadow, not the substance. But those who know both, as men-at-arms, fully on all points, attained their aim sooner and brought authority with them. 3. In all things, but especially in architecture, there are these two points: - the signified and the what

to create more complex shapes, reach greater heights and span larger spaces. Although the arch, vault, and dome were known in other ancient cultures, it was not until the Romans developed the use of cast concrete that their full potential was recognized and realized. ANCIENT ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. The Romans retained many of the design ideas of their Etruscan predecessors, but also adopted some of the Greek ideas passed down to them by the Etruscans. Houses for the worship of the gods were obviously important in both cultures. The design of these places of worship or temples in Greece and Etruria varied, but the

what gives it its meaning. What is meant is what we could talk about; and what makes sense is a demonstration of scientific principles. So it seems that anyone who professes to be an architect needs to know both ways. He must therefore be gifted by nature and capable of learning. Neither natural ability without training nor ability without natural ability can make the perfect artist. That he is educated, skilled with a pencil, taught geometry, that he knows a lot about history, that he has followed the philosophers closely, that he understands music, that he knows something about medicine, that he knows the opinion of lawyers and that he is familiar with astronomy and philosophy of science. the sky. 4. The reasons for all this are as follows. An architect must be a learned man to leave a lasting impression in his treatises. Secondly, you must have drawing skills, so you can easily make sketches that show what the proposed work will look like. Geometry is also very useful in architecture, and in particular it teaches us how to use the ruler and the compass, which we particularly prepare to make plans for buildings on their land, and we turn the square, the plane and the right on plumb Optics, in turn, can be used to direct light onto buildings from fixed points in the sky. It is true that the total cost of buildings is calculated by arithmetic and measurements are calculated, but the difficult issues related to symmetry are solved by geometric theories and methods. 5. A broad historical knowledge is required, because among the gems in the design of an architect's work there are many whose underlying idea of use he must be able to explain to those who are interested. SOURCE: Vitruvius, The Ten Books of Architecture. Trans. Morris Hicky Morgan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1914): 5-6.

Early Roman temples were more based on Etruscan prototypes. Unlike Greek temples, which had a noble solidity, early Etruscan and Roman temples suggested both openness and a sense of mystery. The first temple in Rome dedicated to Jupiter, the Capitol, late 6th century B.C. It was certainly built in the Etruscan style, but on a large scale judging by the foundations and some of the blocks that still survive. Following the Etruscan model, it rested on a high platform or podium, had a broad portico supported by columns, and a cella divided into three cult chambers. It could only be reached from the front via a wide staircase

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EMPEROR AUGUST CHANGES THE FACE OF ROME INTRODUCTION:

The Etruscans built many of their structures from perishable adobe, including not only private homes but also temples and other public buildings. As Roman civilization developed and Rome became a major power in the Mediterranean, it was natural that important structures would be constructed of more durable and attractive materials. Marble was not only more durable, but also more beautiful. Suetonius, the Roman historian, credits the emperor with shaping Rome in his Life of the Emperor Augustus. SOURCE:

Suetonius, The Divine Augustus, in The Art of Rome, c. 753 v. Chr.–337 n. Chr., Quellen und Dokumente. ed. JJ Pollitt (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966): 104.

suggested moving from ordinary life into the domain of a god or gods. Later Roman temples retained these features: the design emphasis on the front porch and the raised dais, reached by an imposing staircase.

through the construction of monuments, columns and arches, and a well-developed system of theaters and arenas provided entertainment for the people. The last required architectural form were tombs for the burial of the dead.

ROMAN URBAN PLANNING. Whenever possible, Roman cities were laid out on a system of streets crossing at right angles, a type of layout also used for Roman military camps. This system is believed to have been inherited from Etruscan urban planning, but some Greek cities also used a grid and it is difficult to prove an exact derivation from the Roman plan. In the Roman system, the principal north-south road was called the cardo, and the principal east-west road was the decumanus. These two streets were always wider than the others and acted as the axis of the plan. Near its junction, in the center of a village, were the forum, the main temples, the main ceremonial and administrative buildings, and other central structures for community life, such as the main bathing establishments. In urban planning, some elements were standard and necessary to Roman life. The most obvious need was for some type of dwelling, which in Roman parlance could range from a humble structure to a grand palace. Providing clean water for drinking and bathing was probably the second most important consideration, so the focus was on developing methods of transporting water over long distances, like the Roman aqueduct. The need for structures dedicated to religion and the worship of the gods led to a variety of temple designs. The commemoration of military victories or the glorification of emperors and generals was enough.

THE ROMAN HOUSE. During the almost 200 years of the Roman Republic, from 200 to 27 BC. C. several standard architectural forms were developed. One of those most typically associated with the Roman architectural style was the shape of the house. Like its Greek predecessors, the Roman house looked after itself. The outer one-street facade was unadorned, having only the main front door and possibly a few windows, although these were not a prominent feature of the design. The plan was often symmetrical and balanced. Beyond the entrance hall was the atrium: the central courtyard with an opening in the roof, usually with a basin in the center to collect rainwater. Around the atrium were the living rooms and bedrooms. Passing through the atrium was the tablinum, a formal space for entertaining visitors. Next to the tablinum was the triclinium, the dining room. In a more elaborate house there may be an additional peristyle or an open courtyard and even an inner garden from which other rooms branch off. This basic plan can be more complex depending on the wealth, rank and position of the owner. Republican-era country villages, such as the Vila dos Papyri in Pompeii in the 1st century BC. They were already extremely complex and expensive. The basic plan of the house with atrium and peristyle became the basis to which outbuildings and separate buildings, gardens and swimming pools were added depending on the size of the family.

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and the number of relatives, servants, and slaves. Contrary to standard plans, examples of dwellings still survive in commercial centers such as Ostia, the port of Rome. These buildings had four or five floors and were arranged in blocks. The ground floor was regularly occupied by shops, and individual apartments often had their own staircase. The city of Ostia offers an excellent example of urban planning aimed at accommodating a large population in a limited space while providing the necessary services for comfortable living. PARAESTS AND VILLAGES. During the Roman Empire period, the emperor's power and wealth was often expressed through the construction of an elaborate palace. After the great fire of 64 C.E. After destroying much of central Rome, Emperor Nero had a magnificent palace built—the Domus Aurea, or “Golden House”—modeled on a sprawling country house with gardens and a artificial lake. Although much of it was later destroyed, enough survives (supplemented with descriptions by Roman historians) to give an idea of its layout and decoration. One of the surviving parts consists of a large octagonal room with a vaulted ceiling and smaller rooms extending from it. The plan of the room is radical enough for a villa or palace, but when one takes these remains together with ancient descriptions describing the walls covered in gold and ivory, one can imagine what a rich impression such a palace would have made and which is why it was called the “Golden House”. The villa built by Emperor Hadrian around 135 AD in Tivoli. it was more a collection of buildings and furnishings than a country house with a unified plan. It contained two main living areas, dressing rooms, at least three theaters and a stadium, reflecting pools, gardens, and other structures, some of which are not easily explained. Because Hadrian was a great traveler, he named parts of his "Villa" after places he had visited, such as "Canopo" after a city in Egypt. Many of the architectural advances that the Romans made in the use of concrete and vaulting were incorporated into parts of Hadrian's villa. In stark contrast to Hadrian's Villa and even Nero's Golden House is the layout of Emperor Diocletian's palace at Spalato (division in former Yugoslavia), built in the early 4th century AD. This palace complex was surrounded by a wall with towers and gates. Inside it was organized like a military camp with two main streets. In addition to residential apartments and formal audience chambers, the palace contained a temple (probably dedicated to Jupiter) and a

Model of ancient Rome in the Museo della Civilta. In the center is the Colosseum, with the Temple of Venus and Rome designed by Emperor Hadrian above it. © ARALDO DE LUCA/CORBIS. REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION.

Tomb prepared for Diocletian. Piazza Armerina, in a valley in central Sicily, is the site of another palatial villa, possibly contemporaneous with the Spalato Palace, but the owner has not been positively identified. In many ways its plan resembles that of Hadrian's villa, being a loosely organized series of colonnaded courtyards, audience rooms and residential areas. Two aspects of the village make it extremely interesting. It's in a secluded area in the center of the island, suggesting a retreat or vacation spot. The well-preserved floors are covered with exceptionally attractive decorative mosaics. There are scenes of hunting with the capture of exotic animals, probably for the arena, scenes of chariot races in the circus, and even images of half-naked female athletes training. An illustrious personality, probably the owner of the villa, is represented with his entourage. The quality of these mosaic "paintings" has led some to believe that the Villa Pizza Armerina was also an imperial residence. AQUEDUCT. As Rome's power increased and urban centers grew in size, became one of the most important

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NERO BUILT A "GOLDEN HOUSE" INTRODUCTION:

Nero's reputation in popular history characterizes him as the emperor who "played the fiddle while Rome burned." The great fire of Rome certainly gave him an opportunity to build a palace in one of the areas devastated by the fire, but it was also a part of the city occupying considerable space where ordinary Romans lived. Nero spared no luxury. Where crowded tenements housed a large population, he designed a spacious dwelling with gardens and swimming pools for his own enjoyment. Part of this building still exists. Other parts were destroyed and later structures were built over them. The Roman historian Suetonius tells the story.

SOURCE: Suetonius, Nero, in The Art of Rome, c. 753 BC 337 AD, Sources and Documents. ed. JJ Pollitt (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966): 143.

General considerations for the common good were the importance of a secure water supply. Roman engineers became particularly adept at constructing stone pipelines, often many kilometers long, that carried water to cities from springs high in mountainous terrain. Because of their exceptional build quality, traces of these remarkable structures can still be found not only around Rome but also in places that were once 30 years old

part of the vast empire, as in Segovia, Spain, or Tunis, in North Africa. A Tunisian aqueduct stretched 45 miles from Zaghouan, the site of an important spring in the south of the country, to ancient Carthage on the coast. It was built so well that many parts are still standing. The best-known and probably most typical example of aqueduct construction is a section called the Pont du Gard, which joins the River Gardon in Nîmes, France. The entire aqueduct was built between 20 and 16 BC. Built around 1000 BC and ran 31 miles at an estimated gradient of 1 in 3,000. The part that emptied into the river is one of the most visible examples of Roman aqueduct construction, nearly 300 meters long and 160 feet high. The structure consists of three levels with smaller arches at the top to channel water. One of the most important ancient sources on the construction and maintenance of Roman aqueducts is a work by Sextus Julius Frontinus, an administrator and strategist who wrote a treatise on Rome's water supply in the first century AD. TEMPLE. The typical Roman temple, derived chiefly from an Etruscan prototype, is well illustrated by the so-called Temple of Fortuna Virilis on the Tiber in Rome. It was founded in the second half of the 2nd century BC. Constructed around 1000 BC, it has a facade of four Greek-style Ionic columns plus two on each side of the portico known as the prodomus. The pillars on the sides of the cell, the main room or chancel, are not free-standing but "hook-shaped", appearing to protrude from the wall and are in fact parts of it. This use of built-in columns is a feature seen in many Roman temples. A good comparison is the Maison Carrée at Nîmes, one of the best-preserved examples of temple architecture from the time of Emperor Augustus in the late 1st century BC. It is larger than the Fortuna Virilis Temple, with six pillars in front and behind and eleven on a side, eight of which are recessed. The capitals are of a more elaborate Corinthian style (fluted columns with floral capitals), but on the other hand a comparison between these two temples shows that it is really only the size of the building that differs. The basic elements of the raised podium, steps and deep porch are the same. In contrast, near the Temple of Fortuna Virilis in Rome is a round temple that is much more Greek in spirit. The platform is covered on all sides and not just in front. The twenty Corinthian columns form a circular colonnade around a circular cella. This building is difficult to date, but it shows that Greek-style temples can coexist with those of a more Italian tradition, and that temples have a special purpose

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Pont du Gard, an aqueduct in Nimes, France built before the 5th century AD. It was the tallest bridge structure in the Roman world. AUDUBON SOCIETY/PHOTOGRAPHICAL RESEARCHERS, INC. NATIONAL COLLECTION. REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION.

could take particular forms. Another example of the possible diversity in Roman temple plans is the Pantheon in Rome, one of the best-preserved buildings of classical antiquity. The translation of the name means that this building should be a temple for all gods. Its preservation is due to its being converted into a Christian church around the 7th century AD. The Pantheon is unusual in having a rectangular portico with a circular interior, a traditional temple facade with an innovative interior. Much of the structure can be dated to the time of Emperor Hadrian in the early 2nd century AD, but there has been considerable debate as to the dating of the entire temple. The sixteen Corinthian columns supporting the portico are 38 foot granite shafts, an engineering feat in itself. The proportion of the "top" is mathematically harmonious because the height of the interior is equal to the diameter of the interior. The construction of the main part of the building relies on an ingenious system of raised arches within the walls to distribute weight vertically. additionally

The concrete of each ascending wall level was deliberately made from ever lighter materials. The architects and engineers of the Pantheon worked together to create one of the best preserved but also one of the most beautiful buildings of Roman times. BASILICA AND BATHS. Two types of construction that best illustrate Roman architectural achievements in the inventive use of concrete and the enclosure of large spaces are the basilica and the bathhouse. Both types were public meeting places. A basilica can be defined simply as a large space used for civic and administrative purposes, capable of accommodating large crowds. The Roman Bath used to be a large complex structure built on a grand scale as well. The Basilica of Maxentius in Rome, built in the 4th century AD, is a good example of the grandeur and complexity that a civic building can attain. In size it was larger than a football field, 213 feet by 328 feet, with a large central room covered by massive vaults. In

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A maison square in Nimes, France.

ARQUIVO ICONOGRÁFICO, S.A./CORBIS.

There were three large bays on each side. This reflects the layout of the later basilica form of Christian churches, consisting of a high central nave with two lower aisles. Emperor Constantine finished construction, so the structure is sometimes named after him rather than Maxentius. One side of this basilica is still a vivid example of the grandeur and scale of late Roman architecture. Compared to the basilica, the Roman bath could be much more complex. In the early third century AD, Emperor Caracalla completed a vast public bath begun by his father, Septimius Severus. Conceived as a form of imperial propaganda, the Baths of Caracalla were built at great expense for the common good, and reflected the Emperor's desire to appear as a concerned ruler. Whatever Caracalla's motives, the ruins of his baths are another example of large-scale construction, with the main building alone measuring over 250 meters in diameter. There were three essential parts of a Roman public bath: the frigidarium, 32

the tepidarium and the caldarium, a series of rooms that were gradually heated up. The standard method of heating baths used a hypocaust system, pipes for steam or hot water under the floor. In the Baths of Caracalla, as in many large bathing establishments, there were exercise and play areas, swimming pools, gardens, libraries and other social spaces in addition to changing rooms and laundries. Visiting the thermal baths was an important part of the social life of a Roman and was in good hands here. In modern times, the dimensions of the Baths of Caracalla can only be compared to large structures such as large railway stations and public libraries. THEATER AND ARENA. The Roman theater was significantly different in construction from the type developed by the Greeks. Although Greek and Roman theaters look very similar, the only thing they really had in common was that they both had areas for dancers or actors and seating for spectators. He

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Interior of the Pantheon, Rome, completed between 125 and 128 AD.

The Pantheon in Rome from the reign of Emperor Hadrian shows the colonnade at the front.

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INTRODUCTION TO LARGE BATHROOM FURNISHINGS:

Roman baths were much more than the word "bath" suggests. The lavish bathing facilities in all Roman cities were also social centers, places of recreation and sport. Almost as important, they offered the ruler or an important official an opportunity to show generosity to the populace. If the emperor wanted to express his interest and concern for his subjects, he could do so by building important public buildings such as markets and baths. Once Roman engineers and architects had developed methods of covering large interior spaces, it was only natural that such techniques would be used in large building plans as part of imperial propaganda. The still dilapidated Baths of Caracalla, which are among the most imposing buildings in Rome, bear witness to this. In the Historia Augusta, a collection of imperial biographies from the time of Diocletian and Constantine, the possible construction of the thermal baths is discussed.

Imaginative drawing of the interior of the Thermae (Baths) of Caracalla, Rome's most magnificent imperial baths, built between AD 212 and 217 with huge vaulted rooms and an intricate heating system. © UPI/CORBIS-BETTMANN. REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION.

SOURCE: Historia Augusta, Antoninus Caracalla, in The Art of Rome, c. 753 BC 337 AD, Sources and Documents. ed. JJ Pollitt (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966): 196.

The Greek theater hall had more than a semicircle in plan, while the Roman type was almost always a semicircle. The orchestra in the Greek Theater was the focus of much of the action, but the stage, with an elaborate permanent backdrop of intricate design - the 34th

scaena - was the place where Roman dramas were performed. The Aspendus Theater in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey), built in the second century AD, is an excellent example of the developed and elaborate nature of the Roman type. The auditorium is over 300 feet in diameter and the elevated stage is over 20 feet deep. It is estimated that this building can accommodate more than 7,000 people. This large-scale construction testifies to the importance of theater in Roman life. In many ways, the amphitheater was just as important for gladiators and other games. One of Rome's most visible and imposing monuments is the Flavian Amphitheater, better known as the Colosseum, but it is only the best-known example of a type built in many parts of the empire. The Colosseum was begun by Vespasian and completed by his sons Titus and Domitian between AD 70 and 80. He occupied the grounds of Nero's Golden House and returned to the people

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Aerial view of the interior of the Flavian Amphitheater in Rome, popularly known as the Colosseum, which opened in 80 AD. with a festival that lasted 100 days. AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS. REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION.

Part of the city he had occupied for himself. The Colosseum was a masterpiece of construction, supported by an interconnected structure of aisles, stairways and ramps, all necessary and carefully planned for the movement of 45,000 to 50,000 spectators. Below the level of the arena was an underground maze of corridors, storerooms, and cages that housed prisoners and wild animals. The exterior decoration reflects the debt to Greek practice, using Doric columns on the ground floor, Ionic on the second, Corinthian on the third, and Corinthian pilasters on the fourth body. There was also an awning system to provide some shade from the strong Roman sun. Colosseum-like amphitheaters were built throughout the empire: at Pompeii and Verona in Italy, Nîmes and Arles in France, and El Djem in southern Tunisia, to name a few. El Djem Stadium, with a capacity of around 30,000 spectators, is one of the

some better preserved specimens because it is now in a sparsely populated part of the country. The surviving Roman theaters and amphitheaters are still living reminders of the popular entertainments enjoyed by the Roman people and provided by the emperors. As examples of a highly developed architectural and engineering tradition, they nonetheless recall the dramatic and comic literature of the Roman stage and the bloody spectacles of the arena. MONUMENTS. The Romans particularly liked to celebrate their military achievements with a "triumph" - a triumphal procession decided by the senate - and the erection of a monumental triumphal arch. A case in point is the Arch of Titus at the eastern end of the Roman Forum. It commemorates his victory in the Jewish War of AD 70 and the two large relief sculptures inside illustrate the triumphal procession. In one, Tito is shown in his chariot.

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Trajan's Arch in Benevento, Italy, marking the end of the Via Traiana. COURTESY OF JAMES ALLAN EVANS.

Trajan's Column in Rome.

COURTESY OF JAMES ALLAN EVANS.

accompanied by the goddess Roma and a winged victory. In the other, victorious soldiers carry spoils from the temple in Jerusalem, including a huge menorah, the seven-branched candlestick. An example of a monumental arch commemorating an event other than a military triumph is that erected by Trajan at Benevento, south of Rome. In this arc from AD 14-17, Trajan is shown distributing food to the city's poor. The arch is also adorned with images of victories and seasons, as well as some later additions, including the young Hadrian emphasizing his relationship with Trajan. Not all arches commemorate a special event. Some mark the entrance to a city, forum, market, or even the end of a bridge, while others serve only as civic decoration. A type of monument comparable to the "triumphal arch" is the memorial column. Trajan's Column in the forum he built commemorates his two wars against the Dacians in a band of relief carvings that slowly spirals to its 125-foot peak. Constructed with carved marble drums weighing about forty tons, the shaft with 36

It contains a spiral staircase with 185 steps and a burial chamber for the emperor's ashes. This is a documentary set in stone that mixes archival footage of the emperor addressing his troops and detailed views of the Roman army at war, where the insignia of the various units have been faithfully reproduced. Its purpose was to emphasize the nobility of the emperor and the character of the Roman army. Trajan's Column is one of the most complete narrative examples of Roman art, although the upper parts are almost impossible to appreciate. Commemorative arches and columns like this one and the later Marcus Aurelius Column tell a lot about the Romans' desire to commemorate important events and campaigns. They served as a decoration and focal point of the cityscape and served as a visible reminder of the power of the Roman Empire. GRAVE OF THE DEAD. Like the Etruscans before them, the Romans practiced both cremation and burial. The tomb had a dual purpose: to protect the remains and to commemorate the dead. Tombs can have a variety of shapes, ranging as diverse as a simple square box, a cylindrical tomb-like structure, a tower, and even a pyramid, depending on the social standing of the deceased and local customs. In one case, a baker's grave was designed to resemble an oven; in another, the tomb of Cestius on the Via Appia, the shape is pyramidal for these reasons

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Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum erected in AD 81 to commemorate the victory of Emperors Vespasian and Titus in the Judah War (AD 70). FRANCISCO G. MAYOR/CORBIS.

it was not explained. The tomb of Emperor Augustus was a cylindrical monument, 85 meters in diameter, erected in Campo de Mars outside Rome. It was built in several layers with a circular colonnade in the second phase. The Emperor's intention was to make his tomb a memorial to the Juliana family, and he had the ashes of other family members collected to be buried with him. A little over a hundred years later, Hadrian also had his tomb designed as a large cylindrical building, perhaps based on Augustus. Augustus' tomb had been filled with Nerva's remains, the last to be deposited there. Contrary to tradition, Trajan's ashes were interred in his column, so Hadrian built a mausoleum for continued use by the imperial family and was used as such until the burial of Caracalla. Hadrian's tomb is now known as Castel Sant' Angelo and was used as a fortress in the 6th century. Its decorative elements were lost a long time ago and in one

Beaded sculptures were cast from its heights like missals. Many monuments in Rome shared this fate. The buildings were stripped of their stone to be reused in new constructions. The Pantheon was converted into a Christian church with the addition of towers that have since been removed. The Arch of Titus was built into the wall of a medieval fortress, and the Roman Forum became a grazing ground for animals. SOURCES

Axel Boëthius and J.B. Ward-Perkins, arquitetura etrusca e romana (Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin Books, 1970). Richard Brilliant, Roman Art from the Republic to Constantine (Londres: Phaedo, 1974). Nancy H. Ramage and Andrew Ramage, Roman Art: Romulus to Constantine (Nova York: Harry N. Abrams, 1991).

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Arch of Constantine in Rome, built by the Roman Senate to commemorate Constantine's victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in AD 311. TRAVELSITE/DAGLIORTI.

LATE ANTIQUE THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. With Constantine's accession to the throne in the early 4th century AD, architecture entered a period of transition from traditional Roman forms to those used in Byzantine Christian buildings, a period aptly termed "Late Antiquity". The Arch of Constantine from this period is one of the most visible monuments in Rome. Located close to the Colosseum, it is in some ways an excellent example of enduring respect for tradition. Its general three-arched design is very similar to the Arch of Septimius Severus at the western end of the Forum, built some hundred years earlier. The main difference between the two monuments is that the sculptural decoration of the Arch of Constantine has several distinct styles. Some of the reliefs depict him and follow the style of his time, others have been reused from Hadrian's time, and still others. It's almost as if a con38

A practical model was used and available decorations were put into service without regard to their stylistic relationships. Side by side you'll see realistic depictions from Hadrian's time and more stylized figures from the time the arch was built. THE BASIC FORM. The term "basilica" simply denotes a meeting and gathering space. In Roman usage this usually meant a civic building for administrative purposes. The Maxentius Basilica in the Roman Forum was an example of the type that was most elaborately designed with side bays and vaulted ceilings. The more typical form was much simpler in design. For example, at Trier on the Moselle in northern Gaul, Emperor Constantine completed a vast palace complex begun by his father. These included residential buildings, a large bathhouse, a circus, warehouses and other structures. It includes one of the most important buildings in architectural history

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it is the audience hall or basilica, much of which survives. It was a simple plan: a large rectangular room, 95 feet by 190 feet, with a semicircular apse, a curved alcove, usually at the end of a building like this one. In front of the entrance to the main hall there was a transept, a vestibule or narthex, and a portico or vestibule. In order to increase the width without resorting to vaults over the corridors on either side of the nave, as the central space was called, the ceilings of the corridors were lower. This provided the opportunity to incorporate windows into the side walls of the nave to brighten the interior. As the Christian church evolved from the secular Roman form for public use, the architectural parts served to draw the believer's attention to the ceremony. This was achieved through the unique orientation of the tunnel-like space ending in the apse, with the help of the rhythmic repetition of the columns on either side. Examples of this form can be found in the plan of ancient St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, or in 5th-century AD churches such as Santa Maria Maggiore and Santa Sabina, also in Rome. The large forms that enclose spaces, as expressed in structures such as the Roman baths, have not been entirely forgotten. Built under Justinian in the mid-sixth century, Hagia Sophia in Constantinople retains the basic plan of the basilica, but on a scale and with an elaborate dome system that is almost unrecognizable as such. What Hagia Sophia shows us is the continuation of Roman values in an architectural tradition that produced monumental results but served the Christian faith rather than the Roman state. SOURCES

John Beckwith, Early Medieval Art (New York: Praeger, 1969). Axel Boethius and JB Ward-Perkins, Etruscan and Roman Architecture (Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin Books, 1970). Richard Brilliant, Roman Art from the Republic to Constantine (London: Phaedo, 1974). David Talbot Rice, Byzantine Art (Baltimore: Penguin Books, Ltd., 1968). DS Robertson, Handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture (London: Cambridge University Press, 1964).

THE OLD CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE THE OLD CHRISTIAN BASILICA. When Emperor Constantine recognized Christianity as the official state religion in the early 4th century, Christians were able to practice their faith openly. Whereas before they had secretly met in the catacombs and others

in non-public places they could now appear freely as an organized and recognized sect. The first Christian meeting places were private homes, and it was not until religious rituals became formal that a special building was needed. Probably to separate themselves from the ancient religions, the "pagan" forms of the Greek and Roman temples were not used for Christian worship. The elongated rectangular shape of the civil basilica was easily adapted to this use, although some modifications had to be made. The basilica was primarily a meeting house capable of accommodating large groups for business and other civic purposes, although some changes in form had to be made for its new religious purpose. The normal civil basilica had its entrance on one side, and this was modified to accommodate the necessary internal alignment and orientation of the church. One of the finest examples of an early Christian basilica was the original Church of St. Peter in Rome. It was built by order of Emperor Constantine on the site of the Circus of Nero where the Apostle Peter was martyred. Construction began in 324 AD, but it was destroyed at the end of the 15th century to make way for a later church. There is ample evidence in drawings and plans pointing to its construction. Its general plan included an atrium, a large open courtyard through which visitors passed to enter the body of the church. Although the general assembly hall followed the general plan of the civil basilica, the addition of the atrium recalled the shape of private houses originally used for worship. In the Church of San Pedro, a large central nave known as the nave was flanked on either side by two parallel aisles. Only the largest churches had five naves; it was more common to have a large central nave with only two aisles. The focus of the religious ritual was on the altar at the far end of the entrance, as is arranged in most Christian churches to this day. While the outer and inner walls and the columns were made of stone, the ceiling and the aisles of the nave were made of wood. This was a pattern followed in most early Christian basilica-type churches, discarding the use of stone or brick vaulting in favor of cheap and easy-to-construct wooden roofs. The form used throughout the Roman world, conceived as a gathering place for large crowds to conduct business and governmental affairs, became the standard for a Christian place of worship. The pattern of early St. Peter's Church was followed in many early churches. A case in point is the Church of Santa Sabina in Rome, begun in 425. Their arrangement follows the pattern of a basilica with an additional semi-dome over the apse, the semi-circular niche at the end of the church

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send. In it, as in many primitive churches, the columns supporting the side walls of the nave were removed from earlier construction. In some cases, such constructive elements were reused without regard to their style or order. Mosaics were widely used in the decoration of the facade, side walls and apse. These enlivened the interior with color and reflected light, but also served as informative and devotional illustrations of the Scriptures. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BYZANTINE CHURCH. Known in ancient times as Byzantium, the city was refounded by Constantine in 333 AD as "New Rome". When the Roman Empire fell under Constantine's successors in 335, it became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire under the new name of Constantinople. The development of the style of church architecture in the East, serving the same purposes as in the West, took a slightly different form. Several reasons are suggested for the difference, including a lack of wood for the roof, leading to a return to the arches and vaults developed by Roman architects. While this may be part of the explanation, it is more likely that church architecture in Eastern Byzantium was the result of a combination of local building traditions and influences from Eastern (Persian) architecture. While Roman architects liked to design round buildings like the Parthenon that could be covered by a dome, Byzantine architects faced the problem of a round dome resting on a square or rectangular building. This problem could be solved in two ways: by using trumpets or by using followers. The squinch uses an octagonal arrangement formed by bridging the corners with a lintel or arch. The pendant uses a second dome shape from which sections have been removed, leaving a circular base supported by four triangular sections supported by four pillars. Essentially following the design of a basilica, Hagia Sophia in Istanbul is an example of the use of domes supported by pendentives. A variation on a plan popular in the East was a central plan in a circular or octagonal building, as seen in the Church of San Vitale in northwestern Italy, built between 526 and 547. The central plan or circular shape never caught on. be popular in the west except for baptisteries and other special purposes. Separate Eastern and Western architectural traditions have continued into modern times and are still evident in the differences between modern Greek Orthodox rite churches and those of a more Western tradition. SOURCES

John Beckwith, Arte Medieval Temprano (Londres: Thames and Hudson, 1964). 40

Jean Lasuss, The Early Christian and Byzantine World (Londres: Paul Hamlin, 1967). David Talbot Rice, Arte bizantino (Harmondsworth, Inglaterra: Pelican Books, 1968). VER TAMBIÉN

Religion: The Rise of Christianity

IMPORTANT PERSONS IN ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN H ADRIAN 76 AD–138 AD Emperor PATRON OF MONUMENTS. Publius Aelius Hadrianus (Adrian) was emperor from 117 to 38 AD. After the death of his father, he became a student of Emperor Trajan. He held several important military and civil offices, including the government of Syria, until Trajan's death in 117. Trajan had appointed Hadrian as his successor on his deathbed. An important aspect of Hadrian's reign was his extensive journey through the Roman Empire, literally from one end (Britain) to the other (Syria). His motivations for years of travel combined the need for sightseeing and a desire to prove himself as the ruler of remote provinces. His importance in the architectural history of Rome includes the completion of the Pantheon in Rome, the Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens, his imposing tomb in Rome (Castel San Angelo) and his imperial villa in Tivoli. SOURCES

Michael Grant, „Hadrian“, in „The Roman Emperors“ (Nova York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1985). JJ Pollitt, A Arte da Grécia 1400-31 a.C. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965): ix–x.

PAUSANIAS mid/late 2nd century AD – late 2nd century AD Ancient Traveler GREEK TRAVELER. The traveler and antiquary Pausanias left a detailed account of the parts of Greece he saw.

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in his book Descriptions of Greece, which contains detailed descriptions of numerous monuments and buildings. The book also covers the history of the place described, as well as some of the local customs, cult systems and local myths. His reports are like a modern travel guide. He was very interested in shrines, tombs and statues and wrote extensive sections on Attica, Megara, Argolis, Laconia, Messenia, Elis, Olympias, Achaia, Arcadia, Boeotia, Phocis and Delphi. He also took care to describe notable battle scenes and historical and artistic monuments. He was selective about what he described and left out, drawing attention to what he considered important in the fields of architecture, culture, and the arts. Pausanias is often the only surviving source for the original appearance of a temple or shrine, at least as it appeared in its day. Little is known about the man other than that he was probably of Lydia origin and the period in which he lived and wrote can only be deduced from internal evidence in his text. SOURCES

Pausanias, Guide to Greece. 2 vol. trans. by Peter Levi (New York: Viking/Penguin, 1984). J.J. Pollitt, The Art of Greece 1400-31 BC. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965): ix-x.

work. Their stories breathe life into the historical record through biography. SOURCES

NGL Hammond und HH Scullard, The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989): 848–849.

SUETONIUS c. AD 69 - c. 140 CE CÉSAR BIOGRAFO Official Scholarship. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus had a distinguished career in the Roman Empire's civil service and was probably secretary to Emperor Hadrian. He was a learned man recognized for his qualities by Pliny the Younger and others. His Lives of the Caesars is a tale composed of twelve biographies from Julius Caesar to Domitian, but also a valuable source of information about the buildings constructed during their reigns. His work is particularly useful as a source of information about architecture that no longer exists. SOURCES

C. 50 n. Chr.–c. 120 DC

N. G. L. Hammond und H. H. Scullard, The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989): 1020.

Priester Cinema Antiquar

IN ITRUVIO

P LUTARCH

GREEK BIOGRAPHER. Plutarch was a man from a distinguished Greek family with considerable influence in ruling circles. For the last thirty years of his life he was a priest in a temple at Delphi. He was also a prolific writer, using his works to influence greater cooperation between Greece and Rome. His literary output includes philosophical, rhetorical, and antiquarian works, but he is best known for his Lives of Famous Men. He arranged the biographies in parallel pairs: for example, he juxtaposed the Greek and Roman orators Demosthenes and Cicero to contrast and compare them. Some of the biographies are particularly revealing about architectural projects. Plutarch's Life of Pericles is a major source of detailed information about his building projects on the Acropolis of Athens. It includes lists of the types of craftsmen employed, the names of the architects of the various buildings, and even the fact that the sculptor Phidias was the general overseer of the building.

Florida. 1st Century BC Architect Military Engineer WROTE ARCHITECTURAL MANUAL. Vitruvius was a Roman architect and engineer who lived and worked early in the reign of Emperor Augustus. In addition to his architectural achievements, his major work was a treatise entitled De architectura (On Architecture). This was based on his own experiences as well as works by other (mainly Greek) architects. The content of this manual includes chapters on urban planning, architecture in general and degree in architecture, building materials, temples, civil buildings, dwellings, paving and plastering, water supply, measuring and geometry and machinery. Your work is particularly valuable because it reflects your practical experience and because of your careful analysis of the

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architectural orders and rules of proportion. His description of "Tuscan" temple design contributes to modern knowledge of what lost Etruscan architecture looked like. The sections on building materials and methods are particularly helpful in understanding ancient building techniques. Little is known of Vitruvius apart from his written works and the buildings attributed to him. SOURCES

N. G. L. Hammond und H. H. Scullard, The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989): 1130.

DOCUMENTARY SOURCES on Architecture and Design Pausanias, Description of Greece (2nd Century AD) – Pausanias traveled extensively throughout the Mediterranean world and was a keen observer of the places he visited. In his account of his travels in Greece he gives a brief overview of the history and layout of the important cities, but it is his detailed description of many important architectural monuments (temples, shrines, treasury and other public buildings) that has shown

to be one of the most valuable sources for the history of Greek architecture. His travels in Greece included most of the major cities such as Athens, Olympia and Delphi. Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus), Natural History (1st century AD): Pliny's compendium of facts included a discussion of construction and building materials, and the techniques of artists and decorators for large architectural works. Suetonius (Gaius Paulinus Suetonius), History of the Caesars (2nd century AD): Suetonius' account of the lives of the twelve Caesars, from Julius Caesar to Domitian, contains descriptive material about the buildings and monuments of Rome. He often describes works that no longer exist, or when they lie in ruins, as they existed in his day. Vitruvius (Vitruvius Pollio), On Architecture (late 1st century BC – early 1st century AD): Virtruv's work on architecture is the only surviving source written by a professional architect of this period and up to survived modern times. In it, he covers virtually every aspect of the craft as it was then understood, including architectural history, style, site layout, and construction. The section on architect education is particularly interesting because it describes the different areas of knowledge and skills that an architect was responsible for.

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

Chapter Two

BAILE James Allan Evans

IMPORTANT EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 TOPICS Dance in Prehistoric Greece . war dances. . . . . . . . . . . . female choirs. . . . . . . The dithyramb. . . . . . . . . folk dances. . . . . . . . . . . . theater dance. . . . . Dionysian dance. . . . . . . . Professional dancers. . . . . . Dancing in Rome. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

48 52 57 57 60 63 66 69 70

They refer to the PEOPLE Arion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bathylus and Pylades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Memphis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theodora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

75 76 76 77

DOCUMENTARY SOURCES. . . . . . . . . . 78 BARS AND KEY DOCUMENTS Primary sources are listed in italics

The Minoans were famous dancers (Homer describes the shield Hephaestus made with his depiction of Minoan dances). . . . . . . 49 Theseus dances the Geranos (an excerpt from Plutarch's biography of Theseus). . . . . . . . . . fifty

Dance in Plato's ideal state (Plato describes the characteristic movements of war dances). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 War Dances of the Greeks (Xenophon describes several war dances performed by armed soldiers). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Curetes and Coribantes (Lucretius describes the ritual dance of the Coribantes) . . . . . . . . . 56 Aeschylus reinvents tragic dance (Athenaeus comments on the dance innovations introduced by Aeschylus) . . . . . . . 63 The Importance of Gestures (excerpt from Quintilian's discussion of useful gestures for a speaker) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 The Ecstasy of the Bacchae (Euripides writes of the ritual dance and madness of the Bacchae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 A dancer having fun at a banquet in Athens (Xenophon describes dancers performing at a banquet attended by Socrates). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Death of a Roman merchant (3rd century inscription on the grave of a dance teacher). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Luciano de Samósata argues on the virtue of the dance of pantomime (Luciano contrasts pantomime with contemporary tragedy) . . . . . . 73 The pantomime dancer Pylades (Macrobius remembers Pylades who revolutionized pantomime during the reign of Augustus) . . . . . 74

any comedy production bearing the costs and overseeing the training of the 24 choral dancers. 423 BC Aristophanes, in his comedy The Clouds, attacks the new experiments in music and dance that were being brought to the Athenian stage at the time.

IMPORTANT EVENTS in the dance c. 1500 BC A small soapstone vase (black soapstone) found at Hagia Traiada in Crete, dating to this period, shows a harvest dance carved in relief. around 1300 BC A small clay figurine from this period, found at Palaikastro in Crete, shows women dancing in a circle around a musician playing the lyre. 544 BC The "Naked Children's Festival" takes place in Sparta, where Spartan youths and elderly men dance naked in the marketplace and sing hymns in honor of those killed in the Battle of Thyrea, fought with Sparta's northern neighbor Argus. 534 BC The tyrant Pisistratus founds the Festival of the Dionysian City in Athens, at which Thespis wins first prize for his "Tragedy", a dithyramb (choral song) in which he himself appears as the main character. 508 BC A separate competition of dithyrambic song and dance is established in the Dionysian city. 501 BC A day of comedy meets three days of tragedy at the festival of the Dionysian city in Athens. Comedy's signature dance, the kordax, is considered vulgar when danced backstage. 486 BC Comedy is produced for the city of Dionysia in the same way as tragedy: the chief magistrate of the state named "Archon" assigns a "corego" to 44

364 BC Rome is ravaged by the plague, and to appease the divine wrath the Romans field Etruscan dancers who perform Etruscan-style dance performances without singing or imitating the music. 334 BC The dramatist Lysicrates erected his choregic monument, which still stands in Athens, to commemorate his chorus' victory in a dithyrambic contest in 335-334 BC. to remember. w. 300 BC A guild of Dionysian artists (actors, musicians and dancers) is founded in Athens. 279 BC Shortly after this date, the artists of the Dionysian Guild of Athens had their right to travel freely in Greece confirmed by the Amphiconian League, a confederation based in Delphi that oversees the Delphi Temple State Government. 240 BC In BC, Lucius Livius Andronicus of Tarentum puts on his first dramatic performance in Rome, which includes songs accompanied by interpretive dances. w. 200 BC Dancing becomes a social achievement in Rome and upper-class parents begin to send their sons and daughters to dance schools. approx. 150 BC In Rome, General Scipio Aemilianus Africanus tries to close the dance schools. w. 22 v. The famous pantomime Pylades, a protégé and presumably a former slave of Emperor Augustus, introduces a new style of pantomime dancing to Rome.

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2 AD The Sebasta, Greek Games, are founded in Naples to compete with the great festivals of Greece such as the Olympic, Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian Games. Sometime after the death of Emperor Augustus in AD 14, pantomime dance competitions are added to the games, along with other competitions in the theatrical arts. 23 AD Emperor Tiberius bans all pantomime from Rome because of the riots pantomime makes.

mances cause in theaters. They are not allowed to return to Rome until Gaius Caligula becomes emperor in AD 37. 162 AD Emperor Lucius Verus brings Rome back - 165 AD to the famous pantomime dancer Apolaustus, called "Memphius", from his campaigns in the East. f. AD 525 Theodora, a former pantomime dancer in Constantinople, marries Justinian. They become emperors and empresses of the Roman Empire in 527.

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

Dance OVERVIEW THE KINGDOM OF TERPSICORE. Dancing was part of what the Greeks called mousike, the arts of the nine muses, daughters of Zeus. Four of them, Polyhymnia, Calliope, Euterpe, and Erato, inspired poets; Melpomene presided over the theater of tragedy and Thalia the theater of laughter; Urania marked the movements of stars and planets; and Clio has preserved the memories and myths of the past. The leader among them all, however, was Terpsichore, ruler of dance. Dancing took place at festivals, religious rituals, theatrical performances, banquet entertainment, youth education, and military training. Mastery of terpsichore extended to all body movements, including acrobatics and especially hand and arm gestures, which the Greeks called kheironomia. Modern knowledge of the ancient dance comes from widely scattered sources: vase paintings, inscriptions carved in stone, and references in Greek and Latin scripts. Most of the information comes from the time of the Roman Empire, when many of the old dances, if they were still danced, changed a lot. The names of several ancient Greek and Roman dances and the traditions associated with them are known, but there are gaps in this knowledge. An example is the Gymnopaideia ("Dance of the Naked Boys"), which was danced every year in the marketplace of ancient Sparta. There are records of the dancers being nude, but this information also shows that both men and boys participated in the dance, leaving both the meaning of the dance and the title open to interpretation. Another example is the Geranos (“Dance of the Crane”) performed on the sacred island of Delos. While the records make it clear that this was a dance closely linked to religion, there is no indication that the dance had anything to do with cranes or birds of any kind. The most famous example is the "tragic choir" that danced and sang in Greek tragedies. Although not much is known about the origins of many Greek dances and traditions, their influence in many different areas, from religion to literature to fashion, is evident. 46

ORIGIN. The purpose of dance in Greek and Roman society is similar to the role dance played in almost all ancient cultures where dancing was directly linked to religious rites. The dance celebrated the changing of the seasons, life and death, social solidarity, and the connection between humanity and the unseen forces that affect human existence. When a tribe depended on hunting wild animals, the hunters could dress in animal skins and dance to the success of the hunt. Because religious ritual was extremely conservative, dances in which the dancers posed as animals continued long after society became more dependent on harvesting than hunting for food. After the domestication of plants and animals, another type of dance emerged: the community danced on the threshing floors after the harvest, expressing not only the joy of the harvest but also the hope for a rich harvest next year. . The dances performed at spring festivals, in which the dancers jumped in the air, were intended to promote fertility in the fields. There were also dances to celebrate marriages, war dances to keep warriors in peak physical condition, and some dances to relieve oneself from the stresses and strains of everyday work. When dance moved to the theater, it became a show. In the Roman Empire, dancing competed with gladiator games and chariot races for public interest, and famous dancers traveled and performed in provincial theaters found in cities of all sizes throughout the Roman Empire. THE CONTRIBUTION OF CRETE. The earliest description of a dance comes from Homer's description of the shield of Achilles in the Iliad, in which the blacksmith god Hephaestus performed two dance scenes. One is the dance of the grape harvesters as they gather the grapes for harvest. The other is a dance specifically reminiscent of Minoan Crete, a prehistoric civilization found on an island off mainland Greece. The dance was performed on a dance floor similar to that owned by Ariadne, daughter of Minos of Crete. Homer's reference to dancing in the Iliad indicates that the Greeks recognized the Cretan contribution to dancing, which involved the hyporchyma, a lively dance of music, pantomime, and instrumental music played on the lyre or aulos. The Geranos, the "dance of the cranes", also comes from Crete. According to legend, the Athenian hero Theseus brought the dance on his way back from Cnossus to the sacred island of Delos, where he slew the Minotaur, a half-man, half-bull monster trapped in a maze-like structure. called the "Labyrinth". Geranos continued to be danced in Delos at a festival held every July.

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DANCE AS A RELIGIOUS RITE. It would not be wrong to say that every Greek dance had a connection to religion as the dances took place at parties held in honor of one god or another. However, there were some dances that were vital to certain religious rites. The Great Mother Goddess Cybele, whose cult center was in Phrygia in western Asia Minor on the periphery of the Greek world, was assisted by eunuch priests called Coribantes, who performed ecstatic dances as part of her ritual. Better known, however, is the Dance of the Maenads, in which devotees of the wine god Dionysus, in fits of temporary madness, danced wild dances or orgies during which they captured and killed wild animals. They are often shown on Greek vases as companions of Dionysus. In many Greek states, women's congregations gathered every two years in the middle of winter and even scaled snowy mountain slopes to dance their "orgies" in honor of Dionysus. THE VARIETY OF GREEK DANCE. Besides the Bacchae, Greek literature mentions many types of dancing. There was the Pyrrhic dance, a war dance that imitated combat between warriors. It was the national dance of Sparta, a militaristic state, but similar dances took place in other parts of the ancient world, including a very old dance said to have been started in Rome by the founder Romulus. The Herakeio was a female dance in honor of the goddess Hera, and the Epilinios was a dance performed during the grape harvest in honor of Dionysus, the god of wine, by treading grapes. The dance performed by the choir in the staging of a Greek tragedy was the Emmeleia. It was a dignified dance, unlike the Greek comedy dance, the kordax, which was not. Satyr plays performed at the end of a three-day tragedy during a festival included sikinnis, in which dancers were dressed as satyrs. The Partheneia ('Dance of the Maidens') was a chorus of ten or eleven girls who could be married off, while the Himenaios was a wedding dance danced by the bride with her mother and some friends. The Hormos was a dance of men and women forming a chain, and the young man leading the chain displayed his skill at dancing and indeed his skill as a warrior. Hailing from Crete, the hyporchema was a combination of pantomime and dance performed by boys and girls singing to musical accompaniment as they danced. THE DICTIONARY. The dithyramb was a choral song and dance performed in honor of Dionysus. According to Aristotle's essay The Art of Poetry, Greek tragedy began with the dithyramb because the chorus was telling a story.

of the myth with song and dance. Around 600 BC a famous artist of the dithyramb, Arion, whose patron was the Corinthian tyrant or dictator Periander, gave it a specific form. Its development into tragedy began in Athens when the festival known as the "Dionysian City" was founded and a leading dithyramb, Thespis, participated as a soloist. However, tragedy did not displace the dithyrambs in the Dionysian city, for in 508 B.C. CE Dithyrambs were given their own place at the festival. They have also been featured at other festivals; In fact, the Theater of Dionysus in Athens was used more often for dithyrambs than for tragedy and comedy. DANCE AS A PROFESSION. Most professional dancers remained nameless in ancient Greece. They were mostly slaves owned by a company master. In Xenophon's Banquet, which describes a banquet attended by Socrates in 421 BC. participated. E.C., a business owner from Syracuse, Sicily, provides dancers to entertain customers. It would have been a shame for an Athenian citizen to have a troupe of dancers, but this master was a foreigner and therefore not subject to Athenian conventions. There was also interpretive dance performed by professionals in Greece, although little is known about it. One story tells the portrayal of the tragic actor Neoptolemus in the myth of Cinyras, the king of Cyprus, who founded the cult of Aphrodite there and unknowingly committed incest with his own daughter, who gave birth to Adonis. It was probably a song and dance performance, a forerunner of Roman pantomime. MIME. It is believed that pantomime began in 22 BC. was introduced in Rome. of the artist Pylades and his rival Bathillus. On the Roman stage before 22 B.C. Performed pantomimes and songs. C., but Pylades and Bathillus introduced a new type of interpretive dance that became very popular. Pylades and the pantomime artists who followed him danced while an assistant recited the story and a small orchestra played the music. Emperors had their favorite pantomimes: Augustus supported Pylades, while his minister of public affairs, Maecenas, promoted Batilus; Gaius Caligula (reigned AD 37–41) worshiped Mnestor, and Lucius Verus (reigned AD 161–180) was a fan of Menfio, who is said to have used his dance to teach the philosophy of Pythagoras. Unlike mimes, mime performers were usually men posing as characters with masks, and rapid mask switching allowed them to quickly switch from one character to another when the script called for it. However, they were closed-mouth masks, not the open-mouth masks of theatrical dramas. There were also pantomime dances, which were skits occasionally involving unmasked actors

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Women. The Copiola Gallery, for example, is known to have been built in 82 BC. BC performed her first stage dance. and the last in AD 9 at the age of 104. In the late Roman Empire pantomime and pantomime were mixed, with women dancing roles from mythology on stage. Empress Theodora, wife of Emperor Justinian (r. 527–565 AD), was a pantomime actress before meeting her future husband. The sketch she is best known for told the myth of Leda's rape by the god Zeus disguised as a swan. Theodora's choreography was easy because although she was a talented comedian, she was not a gifted dancer. She stripped off all her clothes but the crotch strap required by law, and leaned her back against the stage while a servant sprayed her with pimples. Then a flock of geese entered the stage and ate the grain from his body. Although the Roman Empire was largely Christianized by Theodora's time, the Christian church's disapproval of theater did not eradicate the enactment of ancient myths.

TOPICS in dance D ANZA

PREHISTORIC GREECE

MINOAN CRETE. Bronze Age Greek civilizations bear labels that are applied to them in modern times. The Minoan civilization of Crete, which lasted from around 2000 to just before 1400 BC. flourished. C., was a non-Greek culture with an undecipherable language likely associated with contemporary societies in Asia Minor. The Mycenaean civilization in mainland Greece developed a few centuries after the start and end of the Minoan civilization at about the same time. Its name comes from the first place it was discovered: Mycenae, the legendary capital of Agamemnon, who led the Greek coalition in the Trojan War. Since the first archaeological discoveries at Mycenae in the 1870s and Crete at the so-called Palace of Minos at Knossos in the early 20th century, archaeologists and historians have uncovered a wealth of information about these Bronze Age cultures. For example, at a Minoan site in eastern Crete, Palaikastro, archaeologists unearthed an early clay figure depicting women dancing in a circle with a man playing a lyre in the middle. Six clay birds were found with the figure. The figure dates from after 1400 BC. when Greek-speaking immigrants from mainland Greece had already invaded the island, 48

and is the oldest surviving depiction of a musician playing the lyre surrounded by dancers in a circle. Harvest was a time of dancing in Crete; as evidenced by the so-called "Harvester Vase", a small black soapstone vase depicting a procession of harvesters discovered at Hagia Triadha in Crete. The "Vase of Harvest" offers scholars a glimpse of a harvest dance that took place around 1500 BC. on Crete. The vase depicts the harvesters, four of them walking side by side, singing and raising their knees with each step. On their shoulders they carry elongated objects that have been identified as flails or sieves, tools used to separate grain. The main collector is a man who shakes a sistrum, a type of rattle used in Egyptian religious ceremonies, and appears to be singing with enthusiasm. Another Cretan dance ceremony is shown on a gold signet ring found in tombs from the 15th century BC. was discovered. at Vapheio near Sparta in Greece. The signet ring shows a woman dancing under a tree in the elegant court dress worn by the ladies in the palace of Minos on Crete. To her right, a young man jumps to pluck a fruit or flower from the tree. Although visual references to dance in ancient Cretan civilization are fundamental, the best evidence of the dance tradition does not come from archaeology, but from Greek literature centuries later. THE PROOF OF LITERATURE. One of the first literary texts dealing with the Cretan dance tradition after the collapse of Bronze Age civilization comes from the poets of the island of Lesvos. A poem from the seventh century B.C. Attributed to Sappho or Alcaeus, says: "Once the maidens of Crete danced / They danced in harmony thus / Their gentle feet beat in a circle on the beautiful altar. …” Other examples of the famous Cretan dance rituals come from the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Iliad tells how the smith god Hephaestus fashioned new armor for the hero Achilles so that he could return to battle after his best friend Patroclus was killed while wearing Achilles' armor. The shield that Hephaestus made depicted scenes from everyday life in ancient Greece, whether at peace or at war, including two dance scenes. One depicted a dance while the grapes were being harvested from the vineyard, reminiscent of the "Vase of the Harvest". The other showed a dance on a dance floor that Homer explicitly compares to one built by the legendary craftsman Daedalus at Knossos for Ariadne, daughter of King Minos of Crete. The Odyssey tells how the hero Odysseus reached the island of Feacia on his wanderings. Ruled by a generous king and wise queen, Phaeacia is believed to be based on popular memoirs set in the world of ancient Crete, although the odyssey was written at least six years earlier.

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THE MINOANS WERE FAMOUS DANCERS

Crete, on the dance floor of Ariadne, who was the daughter of King Minos of Crete in Greek mythology. Homer recalls the tradition that Minoan Crete, where a pre-Greek civilization lived between 1700 and 1450 BC. C., was famous for dancing.

INTRODUCTION:

Homer's Iliad reflects the tradition that the Bronze Age Minoans of Crete were famous dancers. The passage quoted here describes how the blacksmith god Hephaestus made new armor for Achilles, since Achilles had lent his armor to his friend Patroclus, who was killed by the Trojan hero Hector. The shield that Hephaestus designed was a work of art. In it he staged scenes from Greek life, including two dance scenes, one of which is particularly reminiscent of dances performed in the palace of Minos at Knossos. The first scene is a historical dance in which young people, men and women, dance during the grape harvest, while in the middle a boy plays the lyre and sings the song of Linus, which is a lament expressing no joy. but sadness. Perhaps here was a lament for summer's passing and winter's coming. The second dance scene described below featured boys with daggers and girls with garlands on their heads. Both are dressed in their best clothes (the men have oiled theirs to make them shine) and perform an intricate dance, first forming a circle and doing a circle dance, and then forming two lines moving towards each other. . In the center of the circle were two gymnasts, or vaulters, doing somersaults and high leaps in the air. This type of acrobatic dance was considered a Cretan specialty. Homer points out that these were like the dances performed at Knossos

Centuries after the peak of Minoan civilization. King Alcinous of Phaeacia had five sons and they all need clean clothes to dance. Alcínoo's daughter Nausicaa took the clothes to the beach, where she met Odysseus and sent him to her father's palace. There he took part in a festival where the Phaeacians showed their special ability to dance. The dance floor was swept, the minstrel took his place in the center of the dance floor with his lyre, and the young dancers danced in circles around him. Then two dancers demonstrated their ability to dance with a ball. The other threw the ball up; the other jumped up and caught him before his feet hit the ground. Then they danced, each tossing the ball to the other, who caught it and threw it back. From this example, it is clear that ancient Cretan dance included a wide range of movements: juggling, pirouettes, and arm and hand gestures. It was all part of mousike, the arts sacred to the muses of dance, music and poetry. THE DANCE OF GERANOS. A dance that originated in Crete was the geraniums. Many scholars originally translated

The glorious lame god also represented a dance floor, such as Daedalus once designed for Ariadne with the blond braids in wide Knossos. In it, young men and girls, whose marriage would cost many oxen, danced hand in hand on the wrist. The girls were dressed in fine linen, and the young men had well-knit doublets that shone faintly with oil. The girls wore beautiful garlands and the young men had golden daggers hanging from silver buckets. And now they danced in a circle, light and dexterous on their feet, as when a potter sits at his potter's wheel, which fits snugly between his hands, and his forehead to see that it turns easily; and then they would line up and move quickly to meet each other. A large crowd stood merrily round the beautiful dance floor, [and among them a godlike minstrel played music on his lyre], and amidst the dancers directing their dance steps were two acrobats, hurling and somersaulting. SOURCE: Homer, The Iliad, ix, 689-709. Trans. Andrew Lang, Walter Leaf and Ernest Myers (London: Macmillan, 1911). Text revised by James Allan Evans.

He suggested geranos as the Greek word for "crane", leading to speculation that geranos was a dance in which performers imitated the flight of cranes or dressed like cranes. Animal and bird dances of this type were well known in Greek culture. However, depictions of geraniums discovered on pottery indicate that the dancers were not dressed as herons. An attempt to explain the dance's title suggests that the dance simply simulated the migratory flight of cranes. A widely accepted theory is that the word geranos was mistranslated as "crane". Rather, it derives from a word meaning “end” in Indo-European, the ancient language from which most modern European languages are derived. This idea of liquidation is supported by visual depictions of geraniums showing dancers putting their hands together to form a line that meanders back and forth, sometimes even reversing direction, as if making their way through a maze. Many scholars began to speculate that the geraniums were a "twisted dance" meant to represent a serpent and that it was performed in rituals to honor a large snake like a python. There is archaeological evidence of this

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THESEUS DANCES THE GERANOS INTRODUCTION:

The life of Plutarch of Chaeronea spanned from the 1940s AD. until the reign of Hadrian (AD 117-138). He is best known for his Parallel Lives, which compared biographies of eminent Greeks to eminent Romans. He dedicated a biography to the hero Theseus and in the following excerpt describes how the dance called "Heron" came to Crete. Dicearchus, which Plutarch cites as a source, was a student of Aristotle.

On the way back from Crete Theseus touched Delos. There, after sacrificing to Apollo and consecrating in his temple the statue of Aphrodite which he had received from Ariadne, he and the Athenian youths performed with him a dance which is said to be performed even today by the people of Delos, consisting of a series of serpentine figures danced at regular intervals, depicting the tortuous passages of the labyrinth. The Delians call this type of dance a crane, according to Dicearchus, and Theseus danced it around the altar known as the keraton, composed of horns all radiating from the left side of the head. It is also said that Theseus founded the games on Delos and that the practice of applauding the victors began there. SOURCE: Plutarch, “Theseus,” in The Rise and Fall of Athens; The Nine Greek Lives of Plutarch. Trans. Ian Scott Kilvert (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1960): 27.

Rituals involving snakes in Minoan Crete and Greek mythology relates that when Apollo took over the sanctuary and made it his own, he killed a sacred python worshiped at Delphi. MYTHICAL ORIGINS. Another possible origin of geraniums comes from Greek mythology. According to one myth, King Minos of Crete forced Athens to send him seven young women and girls as tribute each year that would serve as food for the Minotaur, a half-man, half-bull monster imprisoned in the maze, a labyrinth of winding paths and pathways corridors in Knossos. It's unclear whether the maze was a building, an outdoor area, or even a dance floor, as one scholar has suggested. The hero Theseus, son of the king of Athens, insisted on going to Knossos as one of the seven youths to be sacrificed to the Minotaur and there he killed the Minotaur and escaped the upheavals of the 1950s.

Labyrinth that follows a rope given to him by Minos' daughter Ariadne. On the way back to Athens, Theseus stopped at the sacred island of Delos, where he and the rest of the young Athenians who had fled with him performed geranium dances. This scene from the myth is depicted on the François Vase, a famous black-figure style vase named after the excavator who discovered it in an Etruscan tomb in Italy in the early 19th century. On one side of the vase, below the rim, Theseus and his companions are shown disembarking from the boat and forming a line of dancers, alternating by gender, holding hands. Then dancers came and went to celebrate the twists and turns they faced in the maze. There are records showing that geraniums were kept annually on the island of Delos around an altar with horns similar to those found in the palace of Minos in Crete, giving even more credibility to the theory that geraniums were of Cretan origin. THE GERANOS IN THE CLASSICAL PERIOD. Regardless of geranium origins, the dance continued on the sacred island of Delos into Hellenistic and Roman times. The dancers were male and female, forming a kind of chorus with a leader at each end, known as geranoulkoi ("those who pull the crane"). Some inscriptions from Delos survive, providing further evidence of the dance. It was usually performed during a festival held in the month the Greeks called Hekatombaion - which corresponds to July in the modern calendar - and was danced at night by the light of lamps and torches. Inscriptions show payments for torches, lamp wicks, and oil to fuel the lamps. They also show that the dancers each received ten drachmae, no small amount when a mason could earn between one and two drachmae a day. The inscriptions also state that the dancers were given branches that were symbols of victory and cords or ropes worn by the dancers, accessories that refer to the myth of the labyrinth. Since the geranos were danced at night, this was probably part of the rituals performed in honor of the deities of the underworld, the chthonic ("earth") deities. Some scholars believe this is further evidence that the Geranos were a ritual snake dance, since snakes were creatures of the underworld. Gerani survived into the early Roman period of Greek history, but was destroyed after the first century BC. BC No longer shown. OTHER ANCIENT DANCES. There were also other dances that the Greeks thought originated in Crete. One of these was the Hyporchyma, a joyous choral hymn sung to the god Apollo, which was also included

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dance. The hymn has also been attributed to Crete; it was a prayer hymn to Apollo, similar to the hyporchyma. When festivals and sacrifices to Apollo were performed on the sacred island of Delos, children's choirs danced and sang both the hiporchema and the hymn to the accompaniment of the aulos, a woodwind instrument similar to the oboe, and the lyre. The nomoi, narrative poems about the adventures of heroes or gods, also of Cretan origin, were sung to the sound of the lyre or double aulos. In ancient Greece, nomoi were only accompanied by a series of gestures, but later versions included dance steps as well. Dances with men carrying their weapons, originally war dances, were widespread in the Greek world, but the traditional war dance of Sparta known as Pyrrhus or "Dance of Pyrrhus" was of Cretan origin. A Spartan myth surrounding the founder of the Spartan constitution, Lycurgus, tells of Lycurgus's desire for dances befitting a society of warriors, so he persuaded a musician and choreographer named Thaletas to come from Crete and teach the Spartans song and dance . Thaletas of Crete was a historical figure: he was a musician and dance teacher known to have been active in the 7th century BC. in Sparta. He may have revised the Pyrrhic dance in Sparta, but records show that Sparta had the Pyrrhic dance long before Thaletas got there. Because of their great influence, the Cretans gained the reputation of dancers they had with the ancient Greeks. Long after the Minoan civilization of Crete had receded into the shadows of mythology, the tradition of their ancient dances continued. PAEAN AND HYPORCCHEMA. The pea got its name from a ritual cry of the worshipers invoking the god Apollo: "ie ie paian". It was a rhythmic scream accompanied by a dance: three short syllables followed by a long, or musically three quarter notes, followed by a white. This rhythmic beat became known as the "pean". The hymn was sung to drive out the plague or to celebrate victory, although it probably began as a hymn to Apollo. Hymns to Artemis and Ares and to Poseidon as “EarthShaker”, the god of earthquakes, were also sung and danced. Fragments of more than 22 hymns written by Pindar survive, providing scholars with evidence that these dances and songs were part of religious rituals. Sometimes confused with the hymn, the hyporchema also played an important role in religious ceremonies. The chorus singing the hyporchyma was divided into two sections: one sang without dance or, when dancing, used a simple dance step, while the other did not sing but danced an interpretative dance adapted to the lyrics of the song. i use one

hymnic rhythm, although the hyporchyma seems to have been the livelier of the two. Sometimes the term "hyporchem" simply means a lively dance when mentioned in the literature. ANIMALS DANCES. Another type of dance with prehistoric roots was the animal dance, in which dancers wore animal masks or even posed as wild animals without wearing masks. At Brauron outside Athens, an animal dance was performed in a sanctuary dedicated to Artemis. During the Brauronia festival, held every four years, girls between the ages of five and ten performed a bear dance. The founding legend of Brauronia relates that a group of Athenian youths killed a bear in Brauron, provoking the wrath of Artemis, who sent a plague; the Brauronia with her girls' choir dances atoned for the sacrilege. Another animal dance revolved around the bulls. A Greek vase in the British Museum depicts, in black silhouette, three dancers wearing bull masks, bull tails, and hoof-like coverings on their hands. This scene evokes the legend of the Minotaur kept by King Minos in the labyrinth of Knossos in Crete. Further evidence of the bull dance comes from the Palace of Minos, where a fresco shows male and female acrobats leaping in graceful somersaults onto the back of a bull. The Greeks would have viewed acrobatics like this as a form of dancing, and in Crete the tradition of acrobatic dancing survived into later periods. Greek literature mentions owl dances - the owl was sacred to Athena - and a wine decanter in the British Museum shows two dancers dancing dressed as birds while a flutist plays the aulos. Other archeological evidence of animal dances comes from the sanctuary of the goddess Despoina at Lycosura in the highlands of Arcadia. Despoina is not a proper noun; means "lady" or "lady" and probably this goddess was a manifestation of the ancient goddess called "Lady of Wild Animals" who was honored with animal dances. A broken piece of marble carved in bas-relief on the colossal statue of Desponia at Lycosura shows decorative motifs such as eagles, lightning bolts and girls riding dolphins. Also included is a group of dancers wearing animal masks. Some wear masks depicting rams' heads; at least one carries a horse's head. Further evidence comes from finds near an altar on the hillside above the Temple of Despoina. Some exploratory excavations found a large number of clay figurines of animal-headed dancers buried there. Licosura was visited in the 2nd century AD. by the Greek traveler Pausanias, who described what remained of it in his day and stated that it was the oldest of any city in the world, leading scholars

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believing that the worship of the "Lady" with her animal dances was an ancient rite recognized as late as later Greek times. SOURCES

IR Arnold, "Festivals Locais Delos", American Journal of Archaeology 37 (1933): 452-458. A. Burns, "Ariadne's Chorus", Classical Journal 70 (1974–1975): 1–12. Claude Calame, Coros de Jovens Mulheres na Grécia Antiga. Trans. Derek Collins und Janice Orion (Lanham, MD: Rowman und Littlefield, 1997): 53–58. Lillian B. Lawler, "Dança na Creta Antiga", no vol. Estudos apresentados a David M. Robinson 1 (St. Louis, Missouri: Washington University Press, 1951): 23–51. —, „As figuras dançantes de Palaikastro: uma nova interpretação“, American Journal of Archaeology 44 (1940): 106–107. –, „The Geranos Dance – A New Interpretation“, Transactions of the American Philological Association 77 (1946): 112–130. S. H. Lonsdale, "A Dance Floor for Ariadne (Ilias 18.590-592): Aspects of Ritual Movement in Homer and Minoan Religion", in The Ages of Homer: A Tribute to Emily Townsend Vermeule. Hrsg. J.B. Carter und S.B. Morris (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995): 273–284. Steven Lonsdale, Tiere und der Ursprung der Tänze (Londres, Inglaterra: Thames and Hudson, 1981). —, Dance and Ritual Play in Greek Religion (Baltimore Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993). L. Mueller, "Das Gleichnis von Kranichen und Pygmäen: Eine Studie zur homerischen Metapher", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 93 (1990): 59–101. P. Perlman, "Atuando como Urso para Artemis", Arethusa 2 (1989): 111–133. C. Sourvinou-Inwood, „Ritos Antigos e Construções Modernas: Novamente nos Ursos Brauronianos“, Boletim do Instituto de Estudos Clássicos 37 (1990): 1–14.

THE WAR DANCE TO PIRRHIKE. The most famous war dance of ancient Greece was the Pyrrican, which became the national dance of Sparta and existed long after Greece became a province of the Roman Empire and similar war dances in other cities disappeared. The Greeks had several stories that explained the name of the Pyrrhic dance. One said it was invented by a Spartan named Pyrrhicus, although an alternate version claimed Pyrrhicus was a Cretan. Another story connected the 52

dances with the son of the hero Achilles, who had two names: Pyrrhus and Neoptolemus. After Achilles died in the battle of Troy, Pyrrhus came to Troy to take his father's place, and his crowning achievement was to kill Euripylus, the leader of a Hittite force that had come to the aid of the Trojans. After killing Eurypylus, he performed a jubilant dance of victory, and from his dance the Pyrricane got its name. The pyrrican and many other war dances were popular between the 10th and 7th centuries BC. Widespread among the peoples of the Greek world, as well as in neighboring countries. Dancing served a practical purpose in ancient Greek warfare, when warriors often fought in single combat and nimble feet made the difference between a warrior dodging the spear his enemy threw at him or being impaled by him. In Homer's Iliad, the Trojan prince Hector tells the Greek hero Ajax that he is not afraid of him because he knows the steps of the "Deadly Dance of Ares," the god of war. However, in the middle of the 7th century B.C. CE, the face of warfare had changed. The battles became fights between two battle lines of heavily armed foot soldiers called "hoplites", and a good hoplite did not dodge or dance; Instead, he remained firmly in his place in the battle line, pushing back the enemy who faced him with his shield and charged at him with his spear. Dancing was no longer an important part of military training except in Sparta, which maintained its militaristic traditions long after it ceased to be a military power. At the end of the 2nd century AD, Pyrrhus was only practiced in Sparta, where children from the age of five were trained in it. However, Pyrrhus remained the dance most commonly depicted in war sculpture and vase painting. ACCESSORIES FOR MILITARY TRAINING. Intended only for the warrior elite who controlled the state, Spartan training aimed to produce excellent soldiers who were physically fit and skilled with weapons. Hoplomachia (weapons training) among men was an important part of a warrior's training and resembled a kind of dance. When the philosopher Plato spoke about the Pyrrhic dance in The Laws, he described it as part of the Hoplomachy. However, as Pyrrhic dancing developed in Sparta, the young men preparing for battle first had their training session in which they practiced their skills with the weapons of war, and when finished they danced. A piper played the aulos, which had a timbre like bagpipes, and the young warriors formed a line and danced with quick, light steps. As they danced, they sang songs composed by musicians living in the seventh century BC. in Sparta worked. like Thaletas, to whom the organization of the Gymnopaidiai (a

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DANCING IN IDEAL STATE PLATO'S INTRODUCTION:

In Plato's old age, he returned to the theme of his most famous work, the Republic, and attempted once more to sketch what the government and society of an ideal state should be like. The result is the Laws, Plato's last attempt at constructing a utopia. It will be a city-state called Magnesia with a population of exactly 5,040, plus slaves and some foreign residents whose stay in Magnesia will be limited to twenty years. Citizenship education is important. Plato is about what kind of literature young people should be exposed to, what kind of music they should listen to and what physical fitness they should have. The discipline of physical training leads him to dance, which he divides into two classes, respectable and dishonest, and respectable dances in turn can be divided into two classes, war dances and war dances. The next section deals with war dances, i.e. Pyrrhic dances.

So let's take what we've said so far as a fair statement of what wrestling can do for a man. The real term for most other movements that can be performed by the body as a whole is "dance". Two types must be distinguished, the decent and the disreputable. The first is a representation of graceful human movements, and the aim is to create an effect of grandeur; the second mimics the movements of ugly people and tries to portray them in an unattractive light. Both have two subdivisions. The first decent-type subdivision represents handsome and brave soldiers engaged in the fierce battles of war; the second represents a man of temperate character enjoying temperate pleasures in a state of prosperity, and the natural name for it is "Dance of Peace." The war dance is fundamentally different from the war dance.

Spartan Party). Therefore, the pyrrhic dance probably did not belong to weapon training, but to improve the mobility of the warriors. CHANGED TO MIME. Another source of literary information on the development of Pyrrhic dance comes from an author named Athenaeus, who wrote a discursive work in the late 2nd century AD. called learned men at a feast. In it, Atheneu imagines banquets at which he flaunts his knowledge on various subjects, including dance. According to learned men at a banquet, as late as the 2nd century AD the Spartans, who had a penchant for warfare, trained boys in armor from the age of five in the Pyrrhic dance. However, dancing was no longer war. Athenaeus, who was dancing at the time, described him as a kind of Pandionysian

Dance of Peace, and the proper name for it will be "Pyrro". Represents the movements performed to avoid hits and shots of all kinds (dodge, retreat, jump in the air, crouch); and also attempted to depict the opposite type of movement, the more aggressive postures adopted when shooting arrows and firing javelins and dealing out various types of blows. In these dances, which depict fine bodies and noble personalities, proper posture is maintained when the body is held upright in a state of vigorous tension with the limbs almost straight. A position with opposite characteristics that we reject as wrong. As for the Dance of Peace, one thing to note about each performer of the chorus is how successfully - or how disastrously - he maintains the beautiful style of dancing expected of men brought up under good laws. ? This means that it is better for us to distinguish the dubious dance style from the style that we can accept without question. So can we define the two? Where should the line be drawn between them? "Bachic" and similar dances which (the dancers claim) are a "representation" of drunken people called Nymphs and Pans and Sileni and Satyrs and which are performed during "purifications" and "initiations" are something of a problem. ; Considered as a group, they can neither be called "peace dances" nor "war dances" and indeed resist all attempts to label them. I think the best course of action is to treat them separately from "war dances" and "peace dances" and put them in their own category that a statesman might dismiss as unattainable. That gives us the right to put them aside and return to the dances of peace and war, which undoubtedly deserve our attention. SOURCE:

Plato, "Dancing," in The Laws. Trans. Trevor J. Saunders (London: Penguin, 1970): 307-308.

Tomime: The dancers performed an interpretive dance that narrated various myths of the god Dionysus, including his expedition to India and his return to his home state of Thebes. In the days of Athenaeus, Pyrrhic dances were performed for Roman tourists, and indeed Pyrrhic dancers sometimes performed in Rome to amuse crowds at public games as a prelude to the more deadly entertainments involving gladiator games and beast fights messengers. . Julius Caesar organized Pyrrhic dances in Rome, as did the emperors Caligula, Nero and Hadrian. The North African rhetorician and philosopher Apuleius of Madauros (c. 123–c. 190 AD), whose novel The Metamorphoses or The Golden Ass is the only complete surviving Latin novel, described a typical dance performance in the amphitheater in

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Young Athenians perform the Pyrrhic dance. A marble relief from Athens, 4th century BC.

THE ART ARCHIVE/ACROPOLIS MU-

HE WAS BORN IN ATHENS/DAGLI.

Corinth in his time. First there was a Pyrrhic dance performed by beautifully dressed boys and girls, then there was a pantomime, a ballet about the "Judgement of Paris" in which the young Trojan prince Paris judges a beauty pageant of goddesses, and finally the Pièce de Resistance, a doomed assassin being torn apart by savage beasts. THE GIMNOPAIDIAI. Another famous Spartan war dance was that performed for the Gymnopaidiai, first translated by scholars as "Feast of Naked Youth". The central feature of the festival, usually held in the Spartan summer heat in honor of the god Apollo, was a dance competition in which participants danced naked. The competition was not limited to young children, however, but was divided into three age groups: retired warriors too old for active duty, warriors of military age, and young men too young to serve in the army . . Many scholars have 54

They came to believe that the word Gymnopaidiai should be translated as "unarmed dance party" since the Gymnopaidiai dancers did not wear armor as the Pyrrhic dancers did. The dancers mimicked wrestling and boxing scenes, but throughout the dance their feet moved to the beat of the music. As they danced, they sang songs by Thaletas and another musician, Alcman, who was practicing in Sparta at about the same time. ARMED DANCES OUTSIDE SPARTA. The pyrrican may have been the national dance of Sparta, where it was part of the warriors' regular exercise to keep themselves in good physical condition for battle, but it was also found in other parts of the Greek world. In Sparta, the Pyrrhic dance was sacred to the divine twins Castor and Polydeukes, known to the Romans as Pollux. In Athens, the Pyrrhic dance honored the warrior goddess

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GREEK WAR DANCES INTRODUCTION:

Xenophon (c. 430–c. 354 BC) was a student of Socrates who, against Socrates' advice, joined a troop of soldiers of fortune recruited by the younger brother of King Artaxerxes II of Persia. , Cyrus, who conspired to overthrow Artaxerxes and make himself king. But in the decisive battle at Cunaxa in Mesopotamia, Cyrus was killed and his Asiatic followers disappeared, leaving the force of Greek mercenaries to find their way home. To make matters worse, the Persians invited the Greek officers to a parliament and killed them, thinking that the Greek troops would be helpless without their leaders. But the troops chose new officers, including Xenophon himself, and headed north to the Black Sea, and from there the survivors scattered to find new employers. When they reached Paphlagonia in Asia Minor, the ruler of Paphlagonia sent emissaries to the Greek officers, inviting them to dinner, and the various ethnic groups in the small Greek army entertained them with war dances, the dancers carrying weapons. Visitors to Paphlagonia were surprised to see that all the dancers wore armor when they danced, so they brought along a dancer to perform the "Pyrrhus" dance, a Spartan war dance named after the hero Achilles' son, also known as Pyrrhus is Neoptolemus. The Paphlagonian were even more impressed. They wondered if Greek women fought side by side with men, and the Greeks jokingly replied that it was their women who defeated the king of Persia, Artaxerxes II. Xenophon describes the scene in a vivid passage from his Anabasis (The Invasion), which tells the story of how the ten thousand mercenaries that Prince Cyrus recruited from among the Greeks and his neighbors - for not all recruits were Greek - marched to the Middle East and back again.

After pouring wine on the ground in honor of the gods and singing a hymn, the first two Thracians rose and, in full armor, began to dance to the sound of the flute, leaping nimbly in the air and brandishing their sabers. . Eventually one struck the other and everyone thought the man was mortally wounded. His takedown was expertly executed I think. The other man stripped off his armor as the Paphlagonians howled and made his move.

Athena, the tutelary goddess of Athens. It formed part of the annual Panathenaic Festival ceremony held in honor of Athena, as well as the Great Panathenaic Festival, which allowed non-Athenians to participate in the sporting events. The dancers were called pirricistas and were chosen from among the ephebes (youths over eighteen). Have several relief sculptures

leave and sing a Thracian war song known as "Sitacles". The other Thracians carried the fallen dancer as if he were dead. But he had not been hurt. Then some dwarves and Magnesians got up and danced the dance called Karpaia, dressed in their armor. The dance went like this: A man drives his oxen while sowing a field, arms stretched out at his sides, and he frequently glances around like a man in fear. A thief approaches, and when the sower sees him, he grabs his arms and goes to meet him, fighting to save his team of oxen. These soldiers did this to the sound of the reed flute. And finally the thief ties up the man and takes the oxen. But sometimes the owner of the oxen ties up the thief. When that happens, he ties him to the oxen with his hands tied behind his back and leaves. Then a missionary appeared with a light leather shield in each hand. And at some point he danced and simulated a fight against two opponents. Then he brandished his shields as if fighting a single opponent. Then he spun and rolled over, still holding his shields. So it was a good show to see. Finally, he danced the "Persian dance": he tapped his shields, crouched, and then jumped. He did all this to the rhythm of flute music. Then the Mantines and some others from the region of Arcadia advanced, clad in the best armor they had, and performed a drill to a flute-played marching tune and sang a war anthem. And they danced just as they did in the processions with which they honored the gods. And as the Paphlagonians watched, it struck them as strange that all the dances were performed with weapons. A Missian, seeing their astonishment, responded by persuading one of the Arcadians, who had acquired a dancer, to dress her in the best possible costume, put a light shield on her, and lead her to an elegant performance of the 'Pyrrhus' ." . dance." Then there was a roar of applause, and the Paphlagonian asked if the Greek women also fought side by side with their men. The Greeks replied that these were the same women who drove the king out of his camp.

Xenophon, Annabase. Book 6 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998): 466-470. Translated by James Allan Evans.

survives, depicting the Athenian Pyrrhic dance. One shows youths, naked save for helmets, shields and swords, dancing a light dance step; another shows them in chorus, presenting their shields. His festival training was funded, as were the drama productions; A wealthy citizen was chosen to be the coregus ("choirmaster") and paid the costs and had

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INTRODUCTION TO CURETTES AND CORIBANTS:

The Curetes and the Koribantes had one thing in common: they both danced wild ritual dances, but they were not to be confused. According to legend, they were taught the dance of the Curetes by Rhea, a mother goddess who belonged to the generation of Titans, and danced first to protect Rhea's son Zeus. When Zeus was born his mother took him to a cave on Mount Dicte in Crete to save him from his father Kronos who would have swallowed him as he had swallowed his other children to prevent their birth and for his sake hiding, the Curetes they danced. their wild dancing with great leaps and the clash of weapons. In classical times, the Curetes were a Cretan tribe who performed a ritual dance on the sacred island of Delos, an ancient dance similar to that performed by Roman priests, the Salii. The Koribantes were priests of the great mother goddess Cybele, whose center of worship was Pessinus in Phrygia in western Asia Minor, where the holiest object in their center of worship was a black stone embodying the goddess' divinity. The cult of Cybele and her young lover Attis, a god of vegetation, was celebrated between 205 and 204 BC. brought to Rome. C.E., and a temple was built to her on the Palatine, one of the seven hills of Rome, but until the reign of Emperor Claudius (41–54 CE) she was confined to her temple and served only by immigrant eunuch priests from the East because its rites and the ecstatic dances of its followers shocked the Romans. In the following passage, Lucretius, writing in the first century AD, describes a procession of Coribani which he claims the Greeks called "Phrygian curettes", and understandably compares them to Cretan curettes because both involve wild dances in the service of a listed mother goddess. As Lucretius wrote in Latin, he gave the gods their Latin names: Kronos is Saturn and Zeus is Jupiter or Jupiter.

General production monitoring. Crete was another source of war dances, the best known of which was the Dance of the Curetes. It had a legendary origin: when the mother goddess Rhea gave birth to son Zeus, she hid him in a cave on Mount Dicte in Crete to save him from his father Kronos, and the Curetes performed the dance Rhea had taught them. to camouflage his hiding place. They whirled around their shields, slashing them open with their swords as they leaped high into the air. This performance was a primitive ritual associated with the cult of Zeus in Crete, which differed greatly from the cult of Zeus in mainland Greece because the Cretans believed that their Zeus died and was reborn with the seasons. The Dance of the Curetes marked his rebirth. In ancient times, the Greeks and Romans saw a connection between the Curetes Dance and the 56th

Several nations greet her [Cibele] with a ceremony consecrated as Our Lady of Ida. To keep them company, they appoint a Phrygian entourage, as they claim that the crops were first grown within the borders of Phrygia and from there spread across the country. He receives eunuchs as assistant priests to indicate that those who defied their mother's will and were ungrateful to their father should be deemed unworthy of bringing children alive to the sunlit world. It is accompanied by a pounding of drums, tense and played by clapping hands, and a clinking of hollow cymbals; the hoarse-throated horns cry out their deep warning, and the pierced flute inspires all hearts with Phrygian tones. Before their weapons are brought, symbol of rabid frenzy to punish the ungrateful and unholy hearts of the rabble for fear of their divinity. So when she is escorted to a great city for the first time, and silently bestows silent blessings on mortals, the hay spreads along the route with a bountiful abundance of copper and silver, and with a rose snow casts a shadow over the mother and her entourage . . Then an armed gang, called by the Greeks the Phrygian Curetes, enters tournaments and joins in rhythmic dances, merry with blood, bobbing their heads to shake their terrible crests. You remember those Curetas of Dicte, who once on Crete, according to the story, drowned out the cry of the Jupiter child by dancing an armed group of children around a child with light steps and rhythmically beating bronze on bronze. lest Saturn grab him and crush him with his jaws and inflict a wound in his mother's heart that will not heal. SOURCE:

Lucretius, "Motions and Forms of Atoms", in On the Nature of the Universe. Trans. Ronald Latham (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1951): 78-79.

wild dance of the Koribantes, the priests of the Great Mother, Cybele, the ancient goddess of Phrygia in western Asia Minor, and perhaps there is this great connection: both rituals go back to an old fertility religion. However, the Dance of the Curetes was not a priest's dance like the Dance of the Coribantes, but a warrior's dance, although neither dance seems to have much in common with the Pyrrhic dance. SOURCES

E.K. Borthwick, "Trojan Leap and Pyrrhic Dance", Journal of Hellenic Studies 87 (1967): 18–23. -, "PAG. Oxi. 2738: Athena and the Pyrrhic Dance", Hermes 98 (1970): 318–331. —, “Two Notes on Athena as Protector”, Hermes 97 (1969): 385–391.

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Paul Cartledge, The Spartans (Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 2003). Nigel Kennell, The Gymnasium of Virtue, Education, and Culture in Ancient Sparta (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1995): 67–69. DG Kyle, Athletics in Ancient Athens (Leiden, The Netherlands: Mnemosyne Supplement 95, 1987). Kurt Latte, The Saltationibus Graecorum (Giessen, West Germany: Töpelmann, 1913): 27–63. JP McCarthy Poursat, "The Depictions of the Armed Dance in Attic Pottery", Hellenic Correspondence Bulletin 91 (1967): 550–615. Noel Robertson, Festivals and Legends: The Formation of Greek Cities in the Light of Public Ritual (Phoenix Supplement 31) (Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1992): 146-165. Fritz Weege, The Dance in Antiquity (Halle/Saale, Federal Republic of Germany: Max Noemeyer Verlag, 1926): 38-56. EL Wheeler, "Hoplomachia and Greek Dances in Arms", Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 23 (1982): 223–233.

FEMALE CHOIRS THREE CATEGORIES. Female choirs can be divided into three categories: pre-adolescent girls; unmarried girls, called parthenoi, korai, or nymphs; and married women. Most evidence survives on Parthenoi, a Greek word that many scholars have translated as "virgins", but literary evidence suggests that this word means "women who have not yet borne a child". The size of the Partenoi choir can vary, but most consisted of ten members. A Partenoi choir was often depicted on Greek vases; An early 7th-century BC vase found in the marketplace of ancient Athens. shows ten young women, all dressed in white, holding hands, with heads turned upwards as if singing and dancing. Another vessel, a bowl for mixing wine (the Greeks drank their wine mixed with water), was invented in the mid-5th century B.C. Manufactured in Athens. C., shows ten young people holding hands and an eleventh woman playing the flute. Similar boys' choirs existed between 800 and 350 BC. C., but Greek artists preferred to depict female choirs in most art forms. PARTNER. Partheneia were the songs and dances performed by the girls in their choirs. One of the first choral poets, Alcman, became famous for the Parthenion, which he composed in the second half of the 7th century BC. wrote for Spartan girls. A papyrus copy of this Parthenion was found in the 19th century AD, and many scholars have used it as a starting point for gaining knowledge.

Edge of the Partenoi The text of the Partheneion indicates that it was danced and sung by a chorus of ten related girls and contained an agido ("musical leader") and a hagesichora ("dance leader"). According to literary records, it was most often performed at dawn in competition with another choir. There is no idea what the dancing was like or how complicated the dance steps might have been, other than that the meter he used in his poetry was generally simple. THE KARYATHIS. The Caryatis was another type of dance whose origins can be found in Caryae in Spartan territory. The goddess Artemis had a statue there and a sanctuary where the young women of the region (known as "caryatids") performed a traditional dance in honor of the goddess every year. Much of the knowledge of this dance comes from a description by Pausanias, a 2nd-century AD Greek traveler whose guide to Greece is the Classical Archaeologist's Bible, but additional information comes from various art forms, including a group of statues by three caryatids excavated at Delphi in the 19th century AD. The dance was an energetic dance with many turns and pirouettes. In the statue discovered at Delphi, one caryatid is shown with a tambourine and another with castanets. Their usual attire was a light chiton ("tunic") that reached to their knees, and on their heads they wore a kalathos, a vase-shaped basket topped with palm fronds or rose bushes. The dance became so famous that the dancers were immortalized not only in art but also in architecture. The term "caryatid" is a description of a pillar carved to resemble a caryatis dancer; The most famous examples are found in the "Portico of the Virgins" attached to the temple known as the Erechtheum on the Athenian Acropolis. Many column capitals (column tops) adopted the designation "Kalathos" because they closely resembled the headdresses worn by Caryatis dancers. SOURCES

Claude Calame, Choirs of Young Women in Ancient Greece: Their Morphology, Religious Role, and Social Function. Trans. Derek Collins and Janice Orion (Lanham, England: Rowman and Littlefield, 1997): 149–156. J. Pouilloux and G. Roux, "The Delphic Dancers and the Base Known as Pancrates", in Enigmas at Delphi (Paris: E. Boccard, 1963): 123–149.

THE BEGINNINGS OF DITHYRAMB. Among the fragments of poems dating back to the seventh century B.C. poet

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ditirambation. He also wrote that Arion coined the term dithyramb and instructed the Corinthian choirs how to interpret it. There were choruses of songs and dances in honor of gods and heroes before Arion created the dithyrambs; In Corinth's western neighbor Sicyon, "tragic choirs" were performed annually in honor of the legendary king of Sicyon, Adrastus, and they were very old. Modern scholars suggest that the word dithyramb itself was not Greek, and an ancient form of dithyramb may have arisen before the immigration of Greek speakers to Greece. Under Arion's tutelage, however, the dithyramb probably took shape and structure: henceforth it was to be sung by a regular choir and tell a story. The dithyrambs performed before Arion were probably a display of undisciplined dance and music, with the dancers improvising folk songs about the heroes of yore. Arion added music that he composed and choreographed, and it was probably he who established the traditional size of the dithyrambic choir of fifty dancers. Therefore, modern scholars generally credit Arion as the inventor of the classical Greek dithyramb.

Monument erected by Lysicrates in Athens to commemorate the victory of a boys' choir in the dithyrambic competition of 334 BC. so it was Coregus. PHOTO BY HECTOR WILLIAMS. © HECTOR WILLIAMS.

Archilochus of Paros describes the poet's ability to usher in the dithyramb ("graceful chanting circle") of the Lord Dionysus when the wine has lost its mind. This is the first time the word dithyramb appears in surviving Greek literature, although scholars are certain that Archilochus was not the first Greek to use it. The dithyramb was a song and dance honoring Dionysus at parties where much wine was drunk. The Greeks themselves did not know how the dithyramb developed. Several Greek states claimed it as their invention, but it probably developed among the Dorians living in the Peloponnese south of the Isthmus of Corinth. ARION'S CONTRIBUTION. In the stories of Herodotus (ca. 425 BC) there is an account of the creation of the dithyramb. In the years 627-587 B.C. The city of Corinth was ruled by a tyrant named Periander, and at his court was Arion, the most important musician of his time. Herodotus ascribes creation to him58

NEW DIRECTION. Thespis was the leader of a dithyrambic choir in the Athenian city of Icaria and died early in 530 BC. C., a far-reaching innovation in dithyramb production. When his choir performed at the local festival in honor of Dionysus, he participated as a soloist. Before Thespis, the choir sang a story from the heroic age of Greek mythology and danced to the accompaniment of a flutist. However, Thespis went one step further and assumed the role of hero, singing antiphonally with his choir in a sort of musical dialogue while gesturing with his hands to add drama to the story. Then, in 534 B.C. BC, the tyrant of Athens, Peisistratus, founded the great festival of the Dionysian city. Cities outside the city of Athens had held festivals in honor of Dionysus long before this time, but now the city of Athens itself had a festival that eclipsed it. A competition was held during the festival in which dithyrambs were performed, usually with a dancing choir responding to a soloist who also sang and danced. Thespis's innovation made the dithyramb very popular during these festivals, but it also created an offshoot, the tragic plays, which threatened to overtake the dithyramb in popularity in the generation after Thespis. CONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT. The development of the dithyramb lasted until the end of the sixth century BC. Around 525 BC After the death of the tyrant Pisistratus, a lyric poet named Laso came to Athens to enjoy the patronage of Pisistratus' youngest son Hipparchus.

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Following Arion's example, he standardized the number of choristers in the dithyrambic choir of Athens at fifty, and they sang, not just one, to the accompaniment of several flutists playing aulos. It is thanks to Lasus that at the Dionysian city festival in 508 B.C. a separate competition for dithyrambs was set up in Athens. The first winner of the competition was Hippodicus of Chalcis, and although his works were lost their background became important to scholars. Hypodicus was not from Athens but from the neighboring state of Chalkis on the island of Euboea, showing that dithyrambic poets were not simply a phenomenon of mainland Greece and that these poets traveled from state to state to practice their profession. ATTENTION MANUFACTURERS The date of the first dithyrambic contest at the Dionysian city festival is significant. Athens drove out the tyrant Hippias and adopted a democratic constitution that established ten new "tribes," political groups into which all citizens were divided according to a complicated formula that ensured that each tribe included citizens of the three regions of Attica: the city of Athens itself , the interior of Attica, where people lived in rural towns, and the coastal region. At the city's festival of Dionysia, each tribe was expected to perform two dithyrambs: one by boys and one by men. The commoner who produced these dithyrambs in each tribe was a wealthy man who was chosen to be the coregus (choirmaster) and his duty was to pay the poet who wrote the dithyramb and music for him, the choreographer who dem Choir teaching his dance steps, dance , and the musician playing the double-reed instrument called the aulos, and dressing the fifty singers and dancers performing the dithyramb. It was no small expense, but the Coregus whose choir won was given a tripod, which was a three-legged teapot, the equivalent of a mug given to a victorious football or hockey team today, and would erect a memorial to display it. In Athens there was a street called “Rua dos Tripods” that was once lined with choregian monuments depicting tripods conquered by dithyrambs, tragedy or comedy, each mounted by the proud Chorego whose production won the prize. The name of the street survives to this day, but all the Khoreg monuments have been lost except for one, built in 334 BC. by a Korean named Lysicrates. when his choir won the prize for best dithyramb. THE DITHYRAMBIC DANCE. Dithyrambs were popular in Athens and were soon being performed at other festivals as well as in the Dionysian city. However, the performance of the dithyrambs appeared to be similar.

regardless of location. The dithyrambic choir entered the theater with a solemn march and then sang while moving around the orchestra, sometimes dancing in a counterclockwise circle, sometimes dancing backwards and clockwise. Music and poetry were probably more important than dancing. The performers accompanied their singing with gestures that must have been something like the stylized gestures of Indian dances. When the song ended, the dithyrambic chorus left the theater in a dance step, possibly a march. When in the fifth century B.C. C.E. Over time, the dithyramb evolved into a less rigorous and more emotional interpretation. A fragment of a dithyramb by the poet Pindar, best known for his 'Odes of Victory', describes a frenetic dance accompanied by tambourines and castanets, which was part of the rites of the god Dionysus. The dancers shake their heads and shout, and one dancer, representing Zeus, waves his thunderbolt. The type of music has also changed; The simple, dignified Phrygian style was replaced by elaborate flourishes and trills. A dithyrambic called Kinesias, used in the late 5th and early 4th centuries B.C. lived. was responsible for some of these changes. What is known about him comes mostly from his critics, who disliked his innovations, but scholars see that the dithyramb dance became much livelier under his leadership. The comic poet Aristophanes, who did not admire Cynesias' innovations, derided Cynesias' Pyrrhic dances. In his comedy The Clouds, Aristophanes jokes that clouds are particularly fond of dithyramb writers like Kinesias because their feet never touch the ground and they're always gossiping about the clouds. Aristophanes was apparently referring to a dithyrambic dance that had a large number of leaps and bounds, and based on Aristophanes' comments, some scholars have speculated that Kinesias must in fact have introduced Pyrrhic dances or similar into his dithyrambs. STORY LATER. Most surviving information about dithyrambs comes from Athens, but fragments of evidence indicate that dithyrambs spread to many parts of mainland Greece. They took place in Delphi, where the theater overlooking the Temple of Apollo is largely intact except for the stage building, and at the Apollo Festival in Delos. In Epidaurus, the center of worship of Asklepios, the god of medicine, dithyrambs were performed at the athletic and dramatic festival held every four years. By the second century B.C. However, by about 300 BC, dithyrambs had given way to more tragic and comic performances, and records of their performances are few.

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View of the theater in Delphi, Greece where the dithyrambs were performed.

FUENTES

Christopher G. Brown, "The Dithryamb," in Encyclopedia of Greece and Hellenic Tradition. ed. Graham Speake (London, England: Fitzroy Dearborn): 499-501. Lillian B. Lawler, The Dance of Ancient Greek Theater (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1964): 1–21. A. W. Pickard-Cambridge, Tirambo, Tragedy and Comedy. 2nd ed. Rev. Father. by T.B.L. Webster (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1962). G. A. Privitera, "Archilochus and the Pre-Symonidean Literary Dithyrambo", Maia 9 (1957): 95–100. —, "The Beautiful Distance to the Fifth Century" in Greek History and Civilization. ed. Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli (Milan: Bompiani, 1977-1979): 311-325.

FOLKLORIC DANCES . DANCES FOR EVERYDAY LIFE. "He who cannot sing and dance in a choir has no education," said Plato in the Laws, which is a clear reminder that dancing was part of Greek education. Dances played an important role in everyday life. They belonged to the folk tradition and 60

FOTOGRAFIA DE HECTOR WILLIAMS. © HECTOR WILLIAMS.

it often had a religious or semi-religious basis. Mourners danced at funerals. In vase paintings they can be seen standing in long lines, hands raised above their heads in a gesture of pain. There were also wedding balls. There was no wedding ceremony as in the Christian church, but after the families of the bride and groom agreed on the details of the marriage contract, a choir of young men and women accompanied the bride and groom with a dance to the groom's house. There were usually two choirs, one male and one female, and since the dance was performed by torchlight, it probably took place after dark. The dances marked the changing of the seasons, particularly spring with its flowers and the return of the birds, for the Greeks did not understand bird migration and their reappearance each spring must have seemed almost magical. There was a folk dance called "Flowers" in which the dancers were divided into two groups and during the performance one group sang, "Where are my roses? where are my violets Where is my beautiful parsley?” and the other group replied: “Here are your roses. Here are your violets. Here is your precious parsley. There were also folk dances like farandoles where men and women danced together,

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Holding hands, forming a chain. A young man led the chain, demonstrating dance moves befitting a virile young man, followed by a girl demonstrating humble dance steps befitting a decent young woman. When festivals were given there could be dance shows, and this was as early as the 5th century BC. the EC a wealthy man giving a party may hire professional dancers. However, in ancient Greece dancing was still amateur and those who danced were the guests themselves. FOLK DANCE IN SPARTA IN HONOR OF ORTHIA. In the 5th century B.C. C., Sparta was a militaristic state that prioritized heroic deeds on the battlefield. Compared to Athens today, it was a smaller and less advanced community. Two centuries earlier, however, it was a center for dance and music, attracting famous musicians and choreographers such as Alcman, Terpander and Thaletas. However, folk dances were not the concern of these professionals and consequently we are not well informed about them. There is only archaeological evidence for a type of folk dance in which the dancers wore masks. Around 700 BC C., a primitive temple was built in Sparta on the banks of the Eurotas River and dedicated to the goddess Orthia or Artemis Orthia, since Artemis was half assimilated to Orthia by the classical period, although the ancient cult of Orthia survived practically unchanged. . About a hundred years after the temple was built, it was destroyed by a flood from the river that sealed the temple ruins under a thick layer of sand. The temple was built around 550 BC. rebuilt. and then a second cataclysm, an attack by a barbarian tribe called the Heruli in AD 267, which was again sealed in its remains under a layer of debris. At the end of the 3rd century AD, after the restoration of the sanctuary, a small semicircular theater was built to accommodate tourists who came to Sparta to witness the flogging of Spartan youths, sometimes to death, as part of the cult ritual was . .from Ortia. The result of these vicissitudes was that the former vows taken at Orthia, as well as other remains related to the ceremonies at the sanctuary, gained some protection from the ravages of time and were preserved for archaeologists to discover in the 18th century. 20 AD The finds show that at the shrine of Orthia there were ancient folk dances performed by masked dancers, initially ritual dances but later evolving into simple folk dances as time blurred the reasons for the rituals. Pipes for playing dance music made from animal bones with dedications to Orthia have been found, but the most striking feature of the deposits was a set of terracotta masks. They are reproductions of wooden masks once used in balls, but the wood is rotting from the moisture.

land, and the Spartans preferred to use masks made of more durable material. Dedications began in the late 7th century BC. CE, but the vast majority of them belong to the next century. Masks are frightening things, making it likely that the dances performed at Orthia's shrine were originally apotropaic, meaning they were danced to ward off malevolent occult powers causing plagues or crop failures. The masks must have eventually become Halloween masks, once used to ward off the spirits that stalked the land on All Saints' Day, but lost their ritual significance over time. It is not known how long these dances in honor of Orthia lasted, as ancient literary sources provide no information about them. THE DANCE OF THE HYPOCLIDES. Before dancing became professional, performing solitary folk dances was the accomplished young Greek's accomplishment, and a man who embarrassed himself on the dance floor tarnished his character. Damon of Athens, music teacher of the 5th century BC who counted Socrates among his students, maintained that singing and dancing arose from the movements of the soul: noble dances betokened noble souls and ignoble souls were reflected in vulgar dances. The historian Herodotus, who wrote his story around 425 B.C. C., tells a story which shows how dancing revealed a man's unworthy character, and which also illustrates the sort of dance entertainment one would find in the banquet halls of the leading men of archaic Greece. when the wine flowed freely and the guests rejoiced. The story revolved around Cleisthenes, a tyrant of the early 6th century BC. from Sicyon, Corinth's western neighbor. Desiring to find a suitable husband for her daughter Agariste, she proclaimed at the Olympics that any young man who considered himself worthy to be her son-in-law should come to Sicyon to offer her hospitality for a year and after enjoy careful observation. , she would choose one to be her daughter's husband. A small battalion of suitors arrived at Sicyon, and Cleisthenes watched them closely, noting their athletic ability and general decorum. At the top of his list of favorites was the young aristocrat Hippoically of Athens. When the time came to announce the winner, Cleisthenes first entertained all the suitors at a feast, and after the feast was over the suitors competed in mousike (singing, dancing and poetry) and oratory. Hippokledes stood out, outperforming all the other suitors and would have won Agariste if he hadn't been drunk. When it was his turn to dance, he ordered the flutist to play the emmeleia, a type of dance choreography used for Greek tragedy; but Cleisthenes lived before the age of tragedy,

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and the emmeleia was probably not an elegant or refined dance in this period. Cleisthenes didn't like Hippoclades, but said nothing. Then Hippodresses had a table brought up, climbed onto it and performed some Spartan jigs followed by Athenian jigs. Jigs, like the Emmeleia, were considered lower-class dances at the time, but Cleisthenes remained silent. Then Hippohemdes stood on his head and gestured with his legs, scoffing at an acrobatic dance, a mark of great disrespect as it would normally have been performed by someone far below Hippohemdes' rank. At this point Cleisthenes could no longer contain himself and exclaimed, "Hypoclothes! You took your girlfriend to dance! Hippoclothes replied, "What does Hippoclothes care?" which did not alter Cleisthenes' assessment of his character. Much scholarly effort has been expended to identify the dances performed by Hippoically. The Spartan jig may have been something like the gymnopaideia, which Spartan boys and men performed naked. In this case, hippo dresses would undress to dance them. As for the Athenian dance that followed, it may have been the kordax, the dance associated with ancient comedy in Athens, which involves high kicks, somersaults, and twists. Hippohemdes response to Cleisthenes: "What does Hippohemdes care?" it became a proverb meaning "So what?" and the general verdict of Greece was that Hippockeles was a foolish young man whose drunken dancing cost him a good marriage, though no doubt he was admired for his devotion to dancing. THE POPULAR PARTIES TO TRIBUTE TO THE WINNING ATHLETES. Greek athletes who achieved victories in the great athletic competitions of Greece (the Olympic, Pythian, Nemean or Isthmian Games) were only given wreaths to wear on their heads, but when they returned home they could expect much more. Sometimes part of the curtain wall was temporarily demolished so that they could enter the city without having to go through the city gates. They could have meals at the public expense at City Hall for the rest of their lives, which was a great honor. If they were wealthy themselves or came from a respected family, they could hire a poet to compose an ode to victory. It could be a lucrative contract, especially if the winners belonged to one of the great ruling families of Greek Sicily. The sound and spectacle of a public performance by a great poet can only be understood by a modern reader of classical literature if he relies on his imagination, for the music that accompanies it has largely been lost and taken for granted by early Greek authors. only in rare cases. Mention it. Sometimes a passing note from an ancient writer allows modern readers to conjure up an image of 62

how the show must have been at those folk festivals where the citizens of the victorious athlete's hometown would gather to celebrate the victory. Famous poets such as Pindar, Simonides and Bacchylides appeared in splendid attire on a zither, the ancestor of the guitar, although it is usually translated as "lyre", and surrounded by dancers in the theatres. The opening lines of Pindar's victorious ode to Hiero of Mount Etna in Sicily, whose chariot was victorious in the chariot race at the Pythian Games at Delphi, give an example of a typical poetic overture: O Lyra of gold, the precious treasure of Apollo! Possessions shared by the muses with their violet crowns draw attention to the dancers who begin the feast; Its notes tell the singers when to lead the dance, each time the trembling strings play the opening notes of the prelude.

With these words, Pindar gestured for the dancers to begin as he ran his hand along the strings of his zither, producing the opening notes of his ode. For the fees a poet charged for a victory ode (in Pindar's case they were high), the poet not only wrote the poems but also choreographed the dance, trained the dancers, and composed the music. Like all of these poems, it was written for a special occasion, to be presented to a specific audience. Pindar's Victory Death to Hiero, called the First Pytica, was performed before large patriotic audiences in Hiero's hometown of Etna, and then performed again on other occasions, provided the citizens of Etna were willing to hear Hiero's praise. SOURCES

J. B. Carter, "Masks and Poetry in Ancient Sparta," in Early Greek Cult Practice. Eds. Robin Hägg, Nanno Marinatos and GC Nordquist (Stockholm, Sweden: Svenska Institutet i Athens, 1988): 89–98. Paul Cartledge, The Lykorgan Sparta Mirage: Some Reflections, in Spartan Reflections (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001): 169–184. Guy Dickens, "The Terracotta Masks", in the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia in Sparta. Excavated and described by members of the British School of Athens, 1906-1910. ed. RM Dawkins (London, England: Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, 1929): 163-186. Lillian B. Lawler, The Dance in Ancient Greece (London, England: Adam and Charles Black, 1964): 116–126. William H Race, Pindar (Boston: Twayne, 1986). Albert Schachter, "Pindar", in Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition. ed. Graham Speake (London, England: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2000): 1322–1323.

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DANCE

THEATER

DIONYSAN FESTIVALS. In Athens there were three days of tragedy and satirical plays and a day of comedy produced at the major festivals of the Dionysian City in March and the Lenaean Festival in January. In addition, there were the rural Dionysus festivals held every December in honor of Dionysus around Athens in the inland towns and cities. The country festival in Piraeus, the port city of Athens, was particularly famous. The difference, however, was that festivals in Athens featured new works, while festivals in Rural Dionysia generally featured older, more well-known works. Tragedy, comedy, and satirical plays each had their own dances. The main dance associated with the tragedy was the emmeleia, a term encompassing a range of dance patterns and postures. The dance in satyr works was the sikinnis, performed by men dressed as satyrs, with pointed ears, flat noses, and the tails of goats or horses. The comic dance was the kordax, known for its obscene gestures. The kordax was acceptable in the theater, but nobody danced it properly in everyday life unless they were drunk. Evidence for these theatrical dances comes in part from careful study of surviving artwork and sculpture, and from references in literature, much of which is scattered in writings from the Roman Empire period, when pantomime was the staple of the theater. THE TRAGEDY AND CONTRIBUTION OF AESCHYLUS The tragic poet Aeschylus was active in the first half of the 5th century BC. a great innovator of dramatic production. He was one of the first playwrights to produce his own material. He was also the first dramatist to use two speaking actors, and when Sophocles introduced a third actor he did the same. He may not have been the first to use painted landscapes, but his stage painter was the first to experiment with perspective. He was also very careful to create appropriate dances for the chorus in his tragedies. Other tragic poets seem to have employed professional choreographers. Aeschylus did his own choreography, and he did it so well that he is remembered as the first choreographer to train his dancers in schemes - the appropriate poses, postures and gestures for the words and music they sang . Although seven of Aeschylus' tragedies survive and the words sung by his choirs can be studied, little is known of the melodies or dances that accompanied the words. LUS.

THEORIES. The philosopher, music theorist and student of Aristotle's Lyceum, Aristoxenus of Taranto, wrote in the fourth century B.C. BC that there are three important elements in choral poetry: poetry,

AESCHYLOS REINVENTED THE TRAGIC DANCE INTRODUCTION:

Athenaeus of Naucratis in Egypt, who lived in the late 2nd century AD, wrote a long and discursive work entitled Deipnosophistae, or Clever Men at Dinner. It intends to recreate the after-dinner banquet where twenty-four wise men discuss all sorts of subjects. Cooking is a popular topic, but the conversation also includes a discussion of dancing. In fact, Athenaeus is an important source of our knowledge of ancient dance, as he read widely and knew how to quote authors who are now mere names. Here he comments on the dance innovations of Aeschylus in the production of tragedies in Athens in the early 5th century BC. The mention of the Phrygians in the following excerpt refers to a now lost tragedy by Aeschylus that deals with the myth of the Trojan War.

Aeschylus not only invented that splendor and dignity of dress which the hierophants and torchbearers (of the Eleusinian Mysteries) imitate when donning their robes, but also created many dancing figures and assigned them to the members of his choirs. Because Chameleon says Aeschylus was the first to pose for his choirs without using dance teachers, but developed the dance figures himself and generally took over the complete direction of the piece himself. Anyway, it looks like he's acted in his own plays. Certainly for Aristophanes (and among the comic poets one can find credible information about the tragic ones) he makes Aeschylus say of himself: "It was I who gave the choirs new dance designs". And again: “I know about your Phrygians because I was in the audience when they came to help Priam save his dead son. They made many gestures and poses, here and there and the other. ..." SOURCE:

Atheneu, Deipnosophists. volume 1.trans. Charles Burton Gulick (London, England: Heinemann; New York: Putnam, 1927): 93-95. Text modified by James Allan Evans.

singing and dancing. All three aspects shared a common rhythm, which meant that the meter a tragic poet used for the odes sung by the chorus had to say something about the dance that accompanied the music and poetry. For example, if the poet used a marching rhythm for the entrance of the chorus into the theater orchestra, the chorus was likely marching in time; if he used a more lyrical measure, that

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THE MEANING OF GESTURE INTRODUCTION:

Quintilian was a famous oratorio teacher in Rome in the first century AD. that he was appointed to a salaried chair in rhetoric by Emperor Vespasian (AD 69-79). After his retirement he wrote a book on public speaking, the Institutio Oratoria, which covered everything a public speaker should know, including the proper use of gestures. Quintilian was talking about rhetoric, not dancing in the theatre, but even so, the gestures a speaker used to communicate his meaning were largely the same gestures a dancer would use in the theatre, and this is why Quintilian is an important witness to science of keironomy. The following quote is an excerpt from a much longer passage on helpful gestures for the speaker.

The following brief gestures are also used: the hand may curve slightly, as when people are taking a vow, and then move slightly from side to side, shoulders gently swaying in unison: this suits passages where we are sparing and speak almost shyly. Astonishment is best expressed like this: the hand is turned slightly upwards and the fingers approach the palm, one at a time, beginning with the little finger; the hand is then opened and rotated through a reversal of this motion. There are several ways to phrase the question, but usually we do it with a wave of the hand, regardless of the position of the fingers. When the tip of the index finger touches the center of the right edge of the thumbnail while the other fingers are relaxed, we have an elegant gesture that is well suited to expressing agreement, stating facts, and clarifying the points we are making. . There is another similar gesture with the three crossed fingers that the Greeks use a lot today, already with the right hand and now with the left, to round off their arguments point by point. A fairly gentle movement of the hand expresses a promise or agreement, a faster movement encourages action and sometimes expresses praise. There is also the familiar gesture of rapidly opening and closing the hand to express what is being said, but it is a general gesture and not an artistic one. SOURCE: Quintilian, "Birth Gesture and Dress," in La Institutio Oratoria by Quintilian. volume 4. Trans. HE Butler (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, 1922): 297-299.

the choir danced in the theater. There have also been tragedies where the chorus was already in the theater when the action began, in which case the fifteen choristers presumably formed the orchestra and silently took up their positions before the play began. By examining the poetry's meter, scholars can guess whether the choreography was lively or calm. If a kommos ("funeral chant") were sung, the chorus would probably make gestures of mourning, for the literal meaning of the word kommos is "to hit", as in "beating the chest", which was a gesture of pain. In general, however, the contours, poses of the dancers, and figures in the dance are unknown. One aspect of dancing that survived only in Greek art was called kheironomia, the art of hand movement. Numerous vases and sculptures depict dancers performing common gestures such as the hand raised: the hand extended and the fingers bent back, away from the palm. The hand itself can be held in different positions, e.g. B. with palm down, palm toward dancer's body, and hand in front of dancer's face, each position having a different meaning. Both the Greeks and the Romans regarded gestures as an important means of communication, which speakers, for example, should master, and was therefore also an important element of dance. Telestes, a dancer employed by Aeschylus, was so adept at communicating with his arms and hands that he could dance the entire tragedy of Aeschylus, Seven Against Thebes, making the meaning clear with his gestures and dance figures. Kheironomia can still be seen in Eastern dances such as the ritual dances of Cambodia, but has moved away from Western dance tradition in general. THE CHORUS BEFORE THE SQUIRREL. Aeschylus took tragic dancing to a new level by inventing new schemes ("choreographies") for the dance group, including the twists, kicks, and other poses performed by the dancers, but the dancing was an important part of the tragedy before the 5th century BC Also. The dithyramb from which the tragedy developed had choirs of fifty choristers, and presumably the tragedy with which Thespis won first prize in the City of Dionysia of 534 BC. won. there was a chorus of that number. At some point the choir was reduced to fifteen choristers; it was probably first reduced to twelve and then increased to three, although the reasons for this are unknown. Early poets like Thespis, Pratinas, Cratinus and Phrynichus were all tragedians and dance teachers. In the early decades of the fifth century B.C. A small corps of trained dancers were already available for stage productions, semi-professional but some immensely talented. There were artistic and economic reasons for the re-

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Decrease the size of the tragic chorus. The corego—the commoner who paid the cost of production—would have preferred a fifteen-piece chorus to a fifty-piece because it was cheaper, and the tragic poet preferred it because fifteen well-trained dancers could perform the intricate choreography he was best at arranging. What amateurs, talented as they were. Before Aeschylus, dance seemed relatively undisciplined. This is seen in Aristophanes' comedy The Wasps, where old Philokleon gets drunk and performs the ancient dances of Thespis and Phrynicus. They are dances with jumps and turns and high kicks. There is nothing formal and decent about them. Scholars of ancient dance find this evidence disturbing, as it seems to indicate that early tragedy, as it developed from the dithyramb, was accompanied by dances that were much less orderly and decent than after Aeschylus' reforms. Evidence for the work of Aristophanes is generally not appreciated by scholars, as he was an author of comedy and thus may have exaggerated the antiquated dances of early tragedy for comic effect. The wit of Aristophanes would be meaningless, however, if the early tragedies before Aeschylus were not remembered for their lively, perhaps amateurish, but very energetic dances. Based on this assumption, the elaborate, well-choreographed dances of Greek tragedy do not predate Aeschylus in the classical period. THE DANCE OF COMEDY. Both comedy and satire have their origins in the festivals that were danced and sung in honor of the wine god Dionysus. The word "comedy" must be linked to the Greek word komos, meaning "gangs of revelers", revelers who sang and played while dancing through the streets. Where and how comedy took shape as a theatrical performance is much debated, but it was in Athens in 486 BC. BC Official part of the Dionysian city. and soon developed its own conventions. What is known of the "Ancient Comedy" is largely based on nine of the eleven surviving plays by Aristophanes staged during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC). His last two works, written after the end of the war, belong to the "intermediate comedy", a term used in Hellenistic times after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. was minted. to mark the transition between the sitcoms "Old Comedy" and "New Comedy", in which the chorus provided singing and dancing interludes between acts, but played no part in the play itself. The size of the choir became smaller; at a performance at Delphi in 276 BC. it consisted of only seven chorus girls, and a century later a comedy performed on the island of Delos had only four.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE OLD COMEDY. The plays of the "old comedy" had a six-part structure. First there was the prologue, in which the protagonist outlined the plot, which usually revolved around a bizarre and impractical solution to a current problem. Then came the parodies or performances by a choir of 24 costumed dancers. Then came the agon, the quarrel or debate, where the protagonist defended his brilliant solution against the objections of his opponents and always won. Then came the parabase ("digression"), where the chorus addressed the audience directly in song and dance, venting the comic poet's grudge against several prominent citizens. The song and dance of the parabasis contained a long phrase called pnigos ("collar") because it had to be pronounced all at once, and actors whose breath control allowed them to perform it perfectly could expect much applause. A series of ridiculous scenes followed, separated by songs and dances performed by the choir. Finally, the joyful exodus was staged, a scene of rejoicing that usually leads to a feast or wedding. The choir danced away. A good example of the use of dance in comedy is the final scene of Aristophanes' Ecclesiazusae (The Women in the Gathering). Praxagora, the leader of a women's coup enacting a new constitution, sees her husband Blepyrus enter with a group of dancers heading to a banquet to celebrate the new constitution. The choir director orders the dancers to dance and Blepyrus begins a beautiful dance in the ancient Cretan style and the choir, dancers and Blepyrus start the music. THE CORDAX. In the cloud parabase of Aristophanes, made 423 AD, the leader of the choir told the audience that it was a humble work: no cordax would dance in it. The Kordax label did not refer to all of the dances in the comedy, but to one dance in particular, which was performed solo, at least in the sense that the dancers performed it independently, not as members of a chorus coordinating their movements. It was a stimulating dance, like the "bumps" and "grinds" of modern burlesque dancers. The kordax dancer rotated her buttocks and abdomen, and sometimes bent her hips forward. The dancer may also leap as if his feet were tied, or jump in the air, or simply boast lewdly. Leaps and turns of all kinds were part of a kordax performance, and it was performed to the music of the aulos, which was intended to have a timbre similar to that of the bagpipes. Decent people didn't dance the kordax. The philosopher Plato thought he should be excluded from the ideal state he described in his Laws.

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THE DANCES OF THE SATYRS. The characteristic dance of the satyr play was the sikinnis, a dance sometimes used in comedy as well. The creator of the satyr play was a dramatist named Pratinas of Phlius, who lived in the early 5th century BC. BC performed plays in Athens. It was a lively dance with many pranks, quick movements and expressive gestures, many of which were obscene. Two satyr plays survive, including one by Euripides containing a Sikinnis. The Cyclops by Euripides is a parody of the story of Odysseus in the Cyclops' cave as told in Homer's Odyssey. In Cyclops, the old Silenus takes the stage and, after the performance of the play, conjures up the chorus of satyrs. He refers to their performance as Sikinnis, and that's probably why they're dancing on stage. Satyrs were captured by the Cyclops Polyphemus and forced to tend their flocks, and when they dance they drag sheep and goats, although it is impossible to judge whether these animals are real or imagined. However, the satyr chorus in Cyclops has only a supporting role, and the text gives little indication of what the choreography was like. However, the role of Odysseus has several solos accompanied by interpretive dances, which gave the actor who portrayed him a great space to show his gifts. SOURCES

EK Borthwick, "The Dances of Philocleon and the Sons of Carcino in Aristophanes' Wasps", Classical Quarterly 18 (1968): 44-51. JF Davidson, "The Circle and the Tragic Chorus", Greece and Roma 33 (1986): 38–46. C. W. Dearden, The Stage of Aristophanes (London, England: Athlone Press, 1976). Eleanor Dickey, "Satyr Play", in Enciclopédia da Grécia e da Tradição Hellênica. ed. Graham Speake (London, England: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2000): 1495–1497. B. Gredley, "Greek Dance and Theatre", in Themes in Drama. Vol. III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981): 25–29. Richard Green and Eric Handley, Images of the Greek Theater (London, England: British Museum Press; Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995). HDF Kitto, "Der Tanz in der griechischen Tragödie", Journal of Hellenic Studies 75 (1955): 36–41. Lillian B. Lawler, The Dance of the Ancient Greek Theater (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1964). Diana F. Sutton, The Greek Satyr Play (Meisenheim, Germany: Hain, 1980). Oliver Taplin, Greek Tragedy in Action (London, England: Methuen; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978). 66

TANZ D IONISIA Ecstatic dance. Dancing and singing were part of all religious celebrations, but in some, dancing was an instrument by which the dancer attained a closer connection with the deity and entered a state of ecstasy. The violent twists and turns of the dance put the dancer in a state of ecstasy. The goddess Cybele, known as the Great Mother, whose center of worship was in Phrygia in western Asia Minor, was assisted by eunuch priests called Corybans, followers of the goddess, who castrated themselves with flint knives after dancing to the sound of cymbals and castanets... until he reached a state of total ecstasy. Among the twelve Olympian gods and goddesses of Greece, Cybele's closest counterpart was Demeter, who ruled over the fertility of the land, and dances performed in her honor were usually full of lively movement. At the ancient festival of Thesmophoria, which the Athenians celebrated for three days, one of the dances was of the Oklasma. During Oklasma, a dancer crouched with her knees on the floor and then quickly jumped as high as she could from her crouched position for the perfect image of the god for ecstasy. It was the wine god Dionysus who presided over the most famous ecstatic dances. Dionysus was accompanied by a thiasos - a group that goes through the streets singing and dancing - and the thiasos of Dionysus was formed by maenads (crazy women) and satyrs. Dionysus and his uncles were frequent subjects for Athenian vase painters working in the black and red figure techniques. DEFINITION OF MENADES. The maenads were women devoted to Dionysus who climbed the mountains and there took part in a frenetic and ecstatic dance in honor of the god of wine. Sometimes they would catch wild animals and tear them limb from limb with their bare hands and eat the raw flesh of the animals. The myth of Dionysus reports that he was born in Thebes, the capital of Boeotia, a region of Greece northwest of the city-state of Athens. His father was Zeus and his mother was Semele, daughter of King Cadmus of Thebes, who was destroyed by Hera's jealous hatred. As an adult, Dionysus fought in India for two years and then returned triumphantly to institute his new religion. Much of the Dionysus cult is difficult for historians of religion to understand. Dionysus was a latecomer to Greek religion, as the myths about him suggest, as he was not originally one of the twelve Olympian gods, and when he was added to the list he supplanted Hestia, the goddess of the house.

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He was revered in Mycenaean times because his name appears on the Linear B tablets found in the so-called "Palace of Nestor" at Pylos, which dates back to 1200 BC. was destroyed. Apparently, dancing was an important part of their worship. A prehistoric temple was found in Keos, built in the 15th century BC. was built. C. and has been used for a thousand years. Inside were the remains of twenty terracotta statues, all of women, depicted bare-chested and hands on hips, like Dionysian dancers. An inscription on a votive offering from the early classical period found during the excavation identifies Dionysus as the lord of this shrine. Terracotta dancers indicate that dancing was an important part of the rites performed in honor of Dionysus, and scholars have suggested that these dancers were also priestesses of the Dionysus cult. MALEDAS IN THE CLASSIC WORLD. Diodorus Siculus, a Greek historian of the mid-1st century BC. wrote that in Boeotia and other parts of Greece, as well as in Thrace, which extends into modern Bulgaria and Romania, sacrifices were offered in the temple every two years. Dionysus. Honor to celebrate his triumphant return from India. As a result, in many Greek cities, groups of women gathered every two years for rites in honor of Dionysus. Diodorus called these women's bands baccheia and the rites they performed orgia ("frenzied dances"). These Bacchea women included not only unmarried girls but also distinguished married women. The baccheias danced to the sound of the tambourine and the reed pipe known as the aulos, and as they danced they threw their heads back and shouted "euhoi", which sounded like "ev-hi". Evidence from literature and temple inscriptions shows that biennial festivals of this type were held in a number of cities including Delphi, Thebes, which claimed to be the birthplace of Dionysus, Rhodes and Pergamum, and Mytilene on the island of Lesbos. . As part of the festival, which always took place in mid-winter, the women climbed a nearby mountain and danced an oreibasia, a dance or procession in the mountains, at night. The rite involved real difficulties and sometimes dangers. Plutarch, a 2nd-century AD writer, reported that at Delphi, for example, a snowstorm trapped a group of women on the summit of Mount Parnassus and a rescue party had to be sent to lower them down the slope. . THE EVIDENCE OF EURIPIDES DRUMS. The most graphic description that exists of Maenads comes from Euripides' work, The Bacchae, or The Bacchae, as the title is sometimes translated. It was written towards the end of Euripides' life, when he lived in 408-406 BC.

Roman relief of Bacchae or Bacchae dancing around a votive altar, 3rd century AD ART ARCHIVE/MUSEO NAZIONALE TERME ROMA/DAGLI ORTI.

in Macedonia, and the play was not performed in Athens until after his death. The plot tells how Dionysus returned to his native Thebes and there, as in several places in Greece, his new religion met with resistance. Dionysus brought a maenad Thiasos from Phrygia in Asia Minor, who formed the chorus of the play and danced in the theater's orchestra to the sounds of the aulos and tambourine. The Dionysian rite takes over the city. Pentheus, king of Thebes, who was absent, returns home and sees the Maenads dancing on Mount Kitharon, and at the center of each group a bowl of wine adds to the general drunkenness. Pentheus' own mother, Agave, joined the maenads. Pentheus vows to end this madness. A shepherd comes to describe the wild dance of the maenads he and his fellow shepherds witnessed on the slopes of Mount Cithaeron. Pentheus is persuaded by a stranger who is the god Dionysus in disguise to see the Maenads himself, and when the Maenads discover him, they tear him to pieces. In the final scene, Pentheus' mother Agave enters, frantic and bloodied, with Pentheus' head, which she assumes is a lion cub. She killed her own son in her madness, and when her mind clears, she is overcome with terror. Dionysus brought tragedy to the royal house of Thebes.

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THE Ecstasy of the Menads INTRODUCTION:

According to Diodorus of Sicily, a historian who wrote a universal history in Greek during the reign of Emperor Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD), the god Dionysus went on an expedition to India and returned two years later with a large one lot of booty , and was, according to history, the first Greek to celebrate a triumph mounted on an elephant. To celebrate his return, the Greeks living in the region of Boeotia where Dionysus was born and other Greeks also made sacrifices to him every two years, and in some Greek cities both married and unmarried women came up. to the mountain slopes and behave like bacchantes, women who were companions of Dionysus. We see them in Greek art dancing ecstatic dances and carrying the thyrsos: a wand topped with ivy and vine leaves and topped with a pine cone. The classic description of the madness of the Bacchae is found in the Bacchae of Euripides, which tells the myth of how Dionysus returns to Thebes in Boeotia, where he was born and where the mother of King Pentheus and his sisters join the multitude of Bacchae. However, Pentheus opposed the new cult, and when a shepherd tending his cattle on the mountainside brought him an account of how the maenads, including his own mother Agave, were dancing wildly on Mount Cithaeron, he decided to leave. the same. He is discovered and torn to pieces, and in the final scene Agave enters the stage with her son's bloodied head, which she and her sisters Autonoe and Ino tore into pieces thinking it was a lion cub. The excerpt quoted below is from the speech of the messenger informing Pentheus of the madness of the Maenads.

Our grazing herds had just begun to climb the slope of the hill when the sun threw its rays to warm the earth. I saw three groups of women dancing; Autonoe conducted the first choir, her mother Agave the second, and Ino the third. Everyone fell asleep from exhaustion. Some lay on their backs against spruce branches, others threw themselves aimlessly on oak leaves. ...

THE DANCE OF THE MENAD IN HISTORICAL TIMES. The Bacchae of Euripides were obsessed with studying the Dance of the Maenads, and the Shepherd's Speech describing it is a classic tale. However, it seems that in most places where the biennial festival of Dionysus took place, the maenad rites were not spontaneous outbursts of dance. They cannot be compared to the dance explosions that swept through communities in Europe from the 14th to the 17th centuries as people danced until they dropped. It wasn't the same as Tarantella, the 68th either

Then your mother got up in the midst of the Bacchae and asked them to wake up their limbs when they heard the roar of the horned oxen. Then the women shook the heavy sleep from their eyes and sprang up in a spectacle of wondrous beauty. There were young and old women and unmarried servants. First they let their hair fall over their shoulders and gathered their deer skins, those whose bonds were loosened, and wrapped the skins stained with snakes licking their cheeks. Others held gazelles in their arms or wild wolf cubs who fed them white milk. They were young mothers who had left their babies behind and whose breasts were still swollen with milk. Then they laid wreaths of ivy and wreaths of oak and blooming bluebells. One caught his thyrsus and slammed it against a rock from which a jet of liquid water spurted. Another struck his thyrsus on the ground and the god made him raise a fountain of wine. Anyone who wanted milk with snow scratched the ground with their fingertips and had a rich supply of milk. Sweet streams of honey dripped from the ivy sticks. Had you been there to see it, you would have approached with prayers the God you are now insulting. … [The shepherd then related how he and his companions tried to capture the Maenads and then found themselves in danger.] We fled, avoiding a tear in the hands of the Bacchae. But with bare hands and unarmed, the women attacked the heifers grazing on the grass. You could see a well-fed calf bleating and bleating with its legs spread. Others rent heifers separately. One could see the ribs and cloven hooves thrown here and there, and the bloodstained bits hanging from the jaws, dripping with blood. SOURCE:

Euripides, The Bacchae, in Ten Dramas of Euripides. Trans. Moses Hadas and John McLean (New York: Bantam Books, 1981): 296–297.

Round dance for couples from southern Italy, danced six to eight times, believed to be a cure for a nervous disorder known as tarantism. Rather, the orgies seem to have been carefully regulated and restricted to certain groups. The women who danced at the orgy briefly played the role of maenads and then returned to their daily lives, which must have been monotonous for many of them. The Dance of the Bacchae in Euripides' Bacchae, culminating in the dismemberment of a sacrifice, is wild and primitive, and Dionysus is a ruthless god by the number of performances.

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Performances in Greek art was a dance that haunted the Greek imagination. SOURCES

J. Bremmer, "Reconsiderando o menadismo grego", Journal of Papyrology and Epigraphy 55 (1984): 267-286. E.R. Dodds, "Appendix I: Menadism", in: The Greeks and the Irrational (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1951): 270-282. Lillian B. Lawler, "The Ancient Greek Dance: Menads", American Journal of Archeology 31 (1927): 91-92. —, “The Menades”, Memorias da Academia Americana em Roma 6 (1927): 96–100. S. McNally, "The Menad in Early Greek Art", Arethusa 11 (1978): 101–135.

PROFESSIONAL DANCERS DEFINE PROFESSIONALS. The dividing line between the amateur and the professional dancer in ancient Greek society is not easy to draw. The first tragedian, Thespis, was not only a dancer but also taught dancing, like all early tragic poets. Sophocles received tuition from Lamprus, a famous dance and music teacher who was also known for his abstinence from wine, which was unusual among practitioners of Mousike: music, dance, and poetry. The tragic poet Aeschylus, who made his own choreographies, also employed the services of a dance teacher. Although choir and dance teachers were paid, they were considered unprofessional. The fifty men who sang and danced the dithyrambs in Athens were not full-time dancers, i. H. they had other professions that constituted their main activity and were therefore not considered professional dancers. The dancers who enjoyed themselves at banquets belonged to a very different social category. Professional dancers and musicians could be hired and were generally of low social status. late 6th century BC The contemporary literature speaks of professional ale electrodes ("flutists"), only that their instrument was not the brittle flute, but a reed instrument, which was the ancestor of the oboe. There were training schools for auletrids, but it wasn't the art of handling the aulos that most attracted the public. They were also courtesans and prostitutes; in the 4th century BC the word auletris was almost synonymous with cheap prostitutes. In the Graeco-Roman world it was common to hire dancers for entertainment at lavish banquets given by wealthy hosts. The Roman writer Pliny the Younger, who lived under the emperors Domitian (ruled AD 81–96) and Trajan (ruled AD 98–117), wrote a scathing letter to a friend

for not going to a banquet offered by Plinio and listed the delicacies he was missing, including the dancers from Cadiz, Spain. Xenophon, a student of Socrates, described a symposium attended by Socrates where entertainment was provided by a troupe of dancers and musicians led by a Syracuse dance master who hired them. Both the musicians and dancers described in the accounts of Pliny and Xenophon were probably slaves. Entertainment on offer included a sword dance performed by an acrobat and a pantomime telling the myth of Dionysus and Ariadne danced by a girl and a handsome boy. In addition to performing for the dance teacher, the two dancers would also share his bed. Life for professional dancers was difficult and, with the exception of a lucky few, they were at the bottom of the social ladder. THE DIONYSAN GUILDS. Sometime very early in the 3rd century B.C. The actors, dancers and musicians of Athens founded a synodos ("guild"). It may not have been the first such association, as there is reason to believe that the first actors' guild was founded in Hellenistic Egypt, where the government imposed it on actors. In any event, the Athenian Guild was the first in mainland Greece, and this was soon followed by the Isthmian Guild based in Corinth and others, until there were six in all, including one for Greek cities in southern Italy and Sicily. They engaged in a bewildering variety of activities: they exchanged gifts and honors with cities and kings, secured tax breaks and front-row theater seats for their members, and organized festivals. Traveling in the Hellenistic world was unsafe as many poor people had turned to theft and the roads were infested with muggers and the sea routes with pirates. So the guilds negotiated the right to asylum, the right to safe passage from city to city. The rights of the Athenian guild were lost after 274 BC. officially recognized. by the Amphicious League, an intergovernmental organization based in Delphi that was closest to the "United Nations" known in Hellenistic Greece. Dionysian companies of professional artists moved from place to place, and even small towns built stone theaters. In addition to theaters, they built odeons, music halls with roofs so that a storm would not interrupt a performance. Pericles built in the 5th century BC. one in Athens; It was a square building with a roof supported by a forest of columns, but later odeons look like small theaters with roofs that must have been of wood. Their interiors were too dark for tragedy and comedy productions, but the lamps were bright enough for music and dancing. The Music Hall of Pompeii in southern Italy,

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A FUN DANCER AT A BANQUET IN ATHENS INTRODUCTION:

Xenophon's Symposium describes a banquet attended by Socrates that took place shortly after the Great Panathenaic Festival of 421 BC. took place. C., which the rich Athenian Callias offered to his friend and father to celebrate the boy's victory in wrestling. Xenophon wrote his symposium some forty years after it was held, so it's probably not an entirely accurate account, although he himself claims to have attended the banquet. However, his account is about the entertainment provided by a group of musicians and dancers owned by an anonymous professor from Syracuse, Sicily. The performers were likely slaves, and their master was likely a pornobosco, or pimp, who hired the performers for entertainment and sexual favors when his clients requested it.

After the tables had been cleared and a libation served to the guests and a hymn sung, a man from Syracuse came in to amuse himself. He took away a girl gifted with bagpipes and a dancer, one of those who performed amazing acrobatics, as well as a very handsome young man, a talented zither player and a brilliant dancer. The company's Syracusean professor made money by showing them. The girl playing the bagpipes played a piece for the guests and the boy played his zither, and everyone agreed that both had given a satisfactory performance.

It was shortly after 80 BC. It was built in 1500 BC and has the design of a small Roman theater with a low and narrow stage where you can still see the gap in the stage where the curtain was rolled up. The Popularity of Dionysian Artists. For the first century and a half after the death of Alexander the Great (323 BC - AD 14), the city of Rome had a large underemployed or unemployed population, and Augustus knew the importance of keeping people happy . A story is told about Augustus that in 17 B.C. BC, when some citizens were angered by the strict moral laws of Augustus, allowed the officials in charge of festivals to spend on them three times the amount authorized by the treasury, and allowed the popular dancer Pylades to return to Rome, although he had already been charged with sedition had been banished. However, he scolded Pylades for his hilarious rivalry with the dancer Bathillus, to which Pylades replied that when people took their time with dancers, it was Augustus who won. Pylades recognized the value 70

The conversation in the room continues until Socrates signals that the dancer is ready to perform. Soon after, the girl playing the flute began to play a melody, and a boy, attending the dancer, passed the rings to number twelve. The dancer picked them up and threw them in the air as she danced, noticing how high she had to throw them to catch them in a regular rhythm. Watching the performance, Socrates commented that it proved that women were not inferior to men and therefore any of the guests who had wives should not hesitate to educate them. Socrates was immediately asked why he was not practicing what he was preaching with his own wife, Xanthippe, who was notoriously cranky, and Socrates replied that riders practiced their skills on energetic horses, not docile ones. Then the guests turned their attention to the acrobatic dancer. Then they took out a bow and placed it in the center of a circle of upright swords. The dancer then tumbled over these swords to the hoop and then in the opposite direction. Spectators feared that something might happen to him, but he bravely performed the performance without suffering any harm. SOURCE: Xenophon, Symposium. 2.1-11. Translated by James Allan Evans.

dancing to divert the crowd's attention from government failures. SOURCES

James N. Davidson, Courtesans and Fishcakes: The Consuming Passions of Classical Athens (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998). Brigitte LeGuen, Dionysian Associations of Technites in Hellenistic Times. Flight. I, documentary corpus; Flight. 2, Synthesis (Studies in Classical Archaeology, XI–XII) (Nancy, France: Association for the Dissemination of Research in Antiquity, 2001). G. M. Sifakis, "Organization of Dionysian Guilds and Festivals," Classical Quarterly 15 (1965): 206–214.

DANCE

Roma

THE INFLUENCE OF ETURIA. The city of Rome in 364 BC. suffered from a plague. Believing that the plague was the result of the wrath of the gods,

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Mural from a tomb in Ruvo di Puglia, Italy, depicting a mourning dance.

Men brought Etruscan dancers to appease the gods and gain some relief from the ravages of the plague. The Etruscans danced to the sounds of the aulos, the precursor of the oboe, without song or gestures, but their graceful movements captivated the Romans, who began to imitate them. Much about the Etruscans is still a mystery, the riddle of their language is still unsolved, but in ancient times they were known for their love of luxury, as evidenced by the paintings found in their tombs, the splendor of their festivals can be seen. In one tomb, the Tomba dei Cacciatori (Hunters' Tomb), men dance in the open air, most of them naked save for a loincloth. They are shown separated by trees or bushes, dancing wildly to the music of the double aulos. In another tomb, the Tomba delle Leonesse (Tomb of the Lionesses), a naked man is shown dancing in front of a half-naked woman. On opposite walls of the Tomba del Triclinio (Tomb of the Dining Sofa) are two groups of five dancers each, alternating in gender. In one corner a musician plays a double aulus and in the other a man plays the lyre. Another tomb shows a man apparently in armor dancing to the music of the aulos. Like the Greeks, the Etruscans knew pyrrhus ("war dance") or something similar. ROMAN ATTITUDE TO THE DANCE. The Roman character had a strong ascetic streak. The Etruscans may have introduced the dance to the Romans, but it retained an imported reputation for years. Plato could have said that a man who could not dance was uneducated, but Plato was Greek and his Roman contemporaries would have believed such sentiments possible

ridiculous. The art of dancing eventually came to Rome along with the rest of Greek culture, but for the Romans, dancing was always entertainment. It was never part of a Roman's formal education. In the late 3rd century B.C. Upper-class Romans began sending their children to dance master classes, and in the first half of the 2nd century B.C. When Greece itself fell under Roman rule, most Greek dancers probably brought it to Rome as slaves. and later freed, they founded dance schools. From the Roman point of view, the establishment of dance schools gave dance a status far beyond mere entertainment, and its potential for character falsification provoked a backlash against the art form. In the middle of the 2nd century B.C. C., Scipio Aemilianus, a Roman aristocrat who admired Greek culture in general, decided to close the schools, but his success was short-lived. However, Scipio's views on dancing persisted well into the first century BC. in Roman culture: The Romans may have known how to dance, but knowing how to dance skillfully was a symptom of depravity. NATIVE DANCES OF ROME. However, there were dances that were native to early Rome. Said to have been introduced by the founder of Rome, Romulus, the so-called belicrepa was an armored dance performed by warriors lined up in battle lines. The cult of the god Mars Ultor ("Avenger") involved dancing of armed men, and there are depictions of Mars dancing on several surviving medals and precious stones, as well as on a bronze figure. There were also ancient priestly brotherhoods with

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DEATH OF A ROMAN PRINTER INTRODUCTION:

Excavations under St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican in the 1950s uncovered an ancient burial site that stood on Vatican Hill before Emperor Constantine built a church there over the tomb of Saint Peter. Numerous mausoleums, funerary urns and inscriptions marking the graves of the dead have been found there, including the one mentioned below. Aurelius Nemesius was apparently the master of a troupe of pantomime dancers. The date of the inscription is uncertain, but it is likely sometime in the 3rd century AD.

Aurelio Nemesio, beloved and meritorious husband, who lived 53 years, 9 months and 11 days and received the highest praise for his art, acted as teacher of choir, dance and pantomime. His wife Aurelia Eutychiane dedicated and erected [this stone] to him. SOURCE:

"The Dance School", detail of a red-figure vase, 5th century B.C. C, Greece. The master plays the double aulo; a zither hangs on the back wall. THE ART ARCHIVE/MUSEUM

"Tombstone of an Impressario", in O Império. volume 2 of The Roman Civilization: Selected Readings. ed. Nephtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990): 145.

PROVINCE SIGISMONDO/CASTROMEDIA LECCE/DAGLI GORTI.

ritual dancers. The best known are the Salians, priests of Mars Gradivus ("Marches to War"), who are said to have been installed by Romulus' successor as king of Rome, Numa. They wore helmets and breastplates over embroidered tunics, and carried swords and the sacred shields of Mars. They marched through the city of Rome to the sound of trumpets, stopping at religious places and performing the Salic dance there. They moved left to right, then right to left, all the while stamping their feet and leaping in the air while crashing into shields. The Roman historian Titus Livio mentions another ancient dance that dates back to 207 BC. was performed to appease Juno. C., during the long and difficult Second Carthaginian War. Twenty-seven young people went to the forum and sang a hymn, and there they took a rope and danced with it through the streets on their way to the Juno Temple. Ancient tightrope walks have also been found in Greece; A fragment of a Mycenaean fresco shows men in donkey-head masks in a procession carrying a rope. INTRODUCTION TO PANTOMIMES. Historian Zosimus writing in Greek in the reign of AD72

Peror Theodosius II (AD 408-450) on the decline of Rome from the time of the first Emperor Augustus (reigned 27 BC which took place during the reign of Augustus. It was then that the pantomime dance was introduced, which had not existed before Pylades and Bathillus were the first to introduce it, although there are other reasons for the many diseases that have survived to this day.

Zosimos was still a pagan writer at a time when pagan religion had become a small minority in a largely Christian empire, but it reflected the old-fashioned belief that the decline of Rome was caused by moral decline and that dancing was a symptom of decadence was . . The ancient Roman attitude to dancing died hard. Pliny the Younger, an elegant letter writer of the late 1st century AD, commented in one of his letters on the death of an 80-year-old woman, Umidia Quadratilla, who owned a troupe of pantomime dancers and was very fond of their performances. as theirs. it was typical of a woman of her social standing. She didn't allow her grandson to see her, so she remained faithful to the old man

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LUCIANO DE SAMOSATA ARGUMENTS THE VALUES OF PANTOMIME DANCE INTRODUCTION:

Lucian of Samosata in Syria, who lived in the second century AD, often wrote essays and dialogues from the point of view of a satirist, but his dialogue on dancing is a serious defense of pantomime. He imagines a fanatical mime artist talking to a cynical philosopher who mocks her but is eventually won over. The dialogue was probably written in Antioch in AD 162-165. when Emperor Lucius Verus, Marcus Aurelius' colleague until his death in 168 and a lover of pantomime, was in Antioch ostensibly on a military campaign but really enjoying the delights of the city. In this passage, Lucian compares pantomime to contemporary productions of tragedy.

As for the tragedy, we make our first guess about her character from her outward appearance. What a repulsive and at the same time terrifying spectacle, that of a man of enormous stature, riding on high clogs, with a mask reaching to his head, mouth open in a great yawn as if to swallow the onlookers! I hold back

The Roman opinion that dancing spoils youth. Being very wealthy, Quadratilla could pay its pantomime company to put on private performances for its own entertainment, but at the time Rome had permanent stone-built theatres; the first of which was 55 BC. inaugurated. C. long after many towns in Italy had them, and it was pantomime dancing more than tragedy and comedy that filled them. MIME BACKGROUND. Before pantomime was invented, there was pantomime. In Greece, pantomime was a short piece that could be sung and danced on stage. The banquet attended by Socrates after the Great Panathenaic Feast of 421 BC Ariadne, daughter of King Minos of Crete, helped Theseus escape from the Minotaur and accompanied him on his journey home to the island of Naxos, where he left her and Dionysus came to take her as his wife. This pantomime seems to have had at least some characteristics of the later pantomime. The subject was a story from mythology, which was pantomime material. Mimics came about in the 3rd century BC. to Rome, where they became very popular and covered a wide range of subjects. Women

of chest pads and abdominal pads to make you look obese and your body is not very thin in relation to your height. So, inside the costume, the actor himself is shouting his lines, leaning back and forth, sometimes even singing the poetry and – it's really embarrassing – telling a song about his misfortune. [Lucian gives some examples of ridiculously tragic performances and then contrasts them with the pantomime.] On the other hand, I don't have to say that the dancer is decent and decent, because it is clear to all that she is not blind. The mask itself is very attractive and fits the theme of the dramatic presentation. His mouth is not wide open as in the masks of tragedy and comedy, but closed, because the pantomime artist has many actors read the text to him. In the past, pantomime artists undoubtedly sang and danced. But when the panting during the dance disturbed the singing, it seemed better if others sang for her. SOURCE:

Lucian, "The Dance," in Lucian. volume 5th trans. A. M. Harmon (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1936): 239-243. Text modified by James Allan Evans.

They regularly performed as both mimae ("mimic actresses") and men. A popular feature of the festival known as Floralia (Flower Festival) was a pantomime in which mimes appeared naked. The crowds loved pantomimes and the Roman emperors favored them. Emperor Domitian (reigned AD 82–96) satisfied the bloodthirsty tastes of the Roman public by ordering a real crucifixion inserted into a pantomime. Groups of mimes, some owned by businessmen who were also mimes, roamed the Empire's cities and performed in local theaters at festivals sponsored by wealthy citizens to publicize their community spirit. By the time of the late Roman Empire it was difficult to distinguish between pantomime and pantomime, and the Christian Church frowned on both. But in the year 22 a. Invented by two mime artists, Pylades and Bathillus, Roman pantomime was recognized as something new independent of their predecessors. DESCRIPTION OF THE MIME. The pantomime created a new kind of dance performance by combining three arts: singing, music and pantomime. Music and dance have been part of Roman theatrical productions since the first playwright, Livius Andronicus, produced plays in Rome. Livius Andronicus had lost his singing voice and his hearing allowed him to imitate songs while a child sang.

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THE MIME DANCER, PYLADES INTRODUCTION:

Macrobius, the author of the Saturnalia from which this extract is taken, lived in the late fourth century AD and little is known of him save that he was not a native of Italy; It is possible that it originated in Africa. However, he was deeply connected to the traditions and literature of ancient Rome when these were threatened. In his Saturnalia he envisions the leaders of Roman society of his time, many of them still pagans or at least sympathetic to paganism, who gather in December for the festival of Saturnalia and whose entertainment encompasses various ancient themes such as dancing, indigestion and drunkenness. . . , between others. In the passage quoted below, Macrobius looks back four centuries before his time to Pylades, the dancer who, along with Bathilus, revolutionized pantomime in the reign of Emperor Augustus (27 BC - 14 BC). ADVERTISEMENT).

Having begun to speak of the stage, I cannot help but mention Pylades, a famous actor of the time of Augustus, and his pupil Hylas, who proceeded under his tutelage to become his equal and rival. When asked about the respective merits of these two actors, public opinion was divided. One day Hylas performed a dramatic dance, the final theme of which was The Great Agamemnon, and by his gestures he represented his subject as a man of great stature. This was more than Pylades could bear, and cried out from his seat in the pit He: "You're just doing it loud, not great." Then the crowd made Pylades perform the same dance, and when he reached the point where it was

for the. In pantomime, music was sung by a choir, not a soloist. The piercing tones of the doubleaulos provided the music in the past, but Pylades added other instruments. The pantomime players soon became an orchestra with musicians playing aulos, panpipes, cymbals, sitar (a type of lyre), lyre and trumpet. The choir director marked the bar with a scabellum (“iron shoe”), a clapper with a sound box that could be triggered with the foot. While the choir sang and the orchestra played, the mime artist imitated the action of the drama. He wore masks, but unlike a tragic or comic actor's masks, which had an open mouth so the actor's voice could be projected, pantomime masks had a closed mouth because the pantomime ("mime actor") was not speaking. Behind him was an assistant who could have been an actor with a speaking role, but he also gave the pan74

Criticizing each other's performance, he portrayed a thoughtful man and claimed that nothing makes a great commander better than thinking for everyone. On another occasion, when Hylas was performing the Oedipus dance, Pylades criticized him for moving with more confidence than a blind man could demonstrate, shouting, "You're using your eyes." Once, when Pylades came to see Hercules the Dancing mad, some of the audience thought he wasn't maintaining the right action for the stage. She then took off her mask and addressed her critics, saying, "Fools, my dance pretends to be a madman." In this work, too, it was Hercules Furens who shot arrows at the spectators. And when, while playing the same part in a command performance at a banquet given by Augustus, he drew his bow and shot arrows, the emperor did not mind receiving the same treatment from the actor as from the populace. from Rome. He is said to have introduced a graceful new style of dancing to the clumsy fashion popular in the days of our forefathers, and when asked by Augustus what contribution he had made to the art of dancing, he replied in Homer's words: The sound of flutes and whistles and the voices of the people. – Iliad 10.13. SOURCE:

Macrobius, Die Saturnalien. Trans. Percival Vaughan Davies (New York und London, England: Columbia University Press, 1969): 183–184.

Tomimus helps when needed: When Mime changed roles, he changed masks, and sometimes a little help was needed. Favorite acts of pantomime were taken from mythology and known to the general public. THE BIG PLAYERS. Two great pantomimes were associated with the invention of the new pantomime: Pylades, a former slave of Emperor Augustus, and Bathyllus, a former slave of Augustus' minister of public affairs Maecenas, who also maintained a stable of writers. They may have around 22 B.C. collaborated in introducing this new entertainment. Bathillus' performances were livelier and livelier than those of the Pylades, and their dances were livelier. Pylades created the tragic pantomime: a show with chorus, full orchestra, set design, and even a second pantomime when the action called for it. Both Pylades and

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Bathyllus had enthusiastic followers who sometimes fought fierce battles in the streets. Emperor Augustus even banished Pylades from Rome for a time, but relented and allowed him to live in Rome in 17 BC. to return. at a time when the emperor's popularity was waning. For the Roman masses, the removal of Pylades compensated for other measures that were unpopular. THE STARS. The rivalry between the pantomime stars was intense. Pylades fell out not only with Bathillus but also with one of his students, Hylas, whose talent on the stage challenged that of his teacher. Pylades became rich. He owned his own pantomime company and around 2 B.C. He funded a festival himself, although he was too old to perform at the time, and sat in the audience. Emperor Nero, who also had ambitions as a pantomime dancer, killed a pantomime named Paris because he considered him a rival. The names of the great pantomime dancers survive, as later dancers adopted them in hopes of inheriting some of their fame. There was a Paris under Nero, another under Domitian (AD 81–96) and another under Lucius Verus (AD 161–169), co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius. Five pantomime dancers can be traced under the name of Pylades and six under the name of Apolaustus. By the fourth century AD women were dancing in pantomime. They had always played pantomime and the distinction between the two was fluid. In the 6th century AD, Empress Theodora (527–548) was a pantomime dancer in her youth in Constantinople, then a Christian city, and respectable women were not allowed to attend the theatre. However, when Theodora became Empress, she did not forget her old friends in the theater. They were received as guests at the Imperial Palace and she arranged good marriages for her daughters. SOURCES

Mario Bonaria, "Dinastie di Pantomimi Latini", Maia 11 (1959): 224-242. EJ Jory, "Actors' Associations in Rome", Hermes 98 (1970): 224–253. —, "Literary Evidence for the Beginnings of Imperial Pantomime", Institute of Classical Studies Bulletin 28 (1981): 147-161. O. Navarre, "Pantomimus", in Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines. volume IV, point. 1st Ed. Charles Daremberg and Edmund Saglio (Graz, Germany: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, 1962-1963): 316-318. Charlotte Rouché, Performers and Partisans at Aphrodisias in the Roman and Late Roman Periods (London, England: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, 1993).

Louis Séchan, "Saltatio", in Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Flight. IV, Part 1. Eds. Charles Daremberg and Edmund Saglio (Graz, Germany: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, 1962–1963): 1049–1054.

IMPORTANT PEOPLE in the dance A RION c. 650 BC -C. 590 BC Musician Choreographer THE GLORY OF ARION. Arion was a master of mousike (dance, poetry and music) whose greatest activity was in the last half of the 7th century BC. His fame endured, although none of his poems have survived. He was from Methymna, a city-state on the island of Lesbos off the west coast of Turkey, but spent much of his life in Corinth, where his patron was the tyrant Periander. During Periander's forty-year reign, Corinth was a splendid center of art and culture, and among the artists drawn to his court was Arion. ARION AND THE DICTARAMB. The dithyramb was a choral hymn accompanied by dance sung in honor of the wine god Dionysus, and what exactly the music and dance looked like before Arion is unknown. Arion's contribution was to give the dithyrambic chorus a new organization. It was he who fixed the number of choristers at fifty, and he himself composed dithyrambs and taught the Corinthian choirs to interpret them. The oxen were prizes for the winning choirs, and the sacrifice of the precious oxen was part of the festival. From Corinth the dithyramb was brought to Athens, where its development is associated with an equally obscure figure, Lasus of Hermione, who lived around 548-547 BC. was born. Aristotle claimed that Greek tragic drama developed from the dithyramb. ARION AND THE DOLPHIN. Arion was almost more famous for his adventures with a dolphin than for his contributions to dance and music. The story goes that he took a sabbatical from Periander's court and traveled through the Greek cities of Italy and Sicily, where he made a lot of money. When the time came to return to Greece, he chose a Corinthian ship for the voyage because he trusted the Corinthians more than anyone else.

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However, the sailors knew he had plenty of money and plotted to take it and throw Arion overboard. Arion begged her to take his money but spare his life, and when he could not be persuaded, he asked permission to stand at the stern of the ship and sing one last song before he died. The sailors agreed, and Arion put on the clothes he wore as he played and sang a song, and then jumped into the sea, where a dolphin picked him up and carried him to shore on his back. Once there, he went, still in disguise, to Periander's court. Later the sailors returned to Corinth and informed Periander that Arion was still safe and sound in Italy. They were in for a nasty surprise when Periander confronted them about Arion. It is said that the god Apollo, who was the god of the lyre and to whom dolphins were sacred, helped Arion. The Greeks believed that Apollo helped musicians in need and ensured that Arion's would-be murderers were punished. After this account of Arion there is no other reference than mentioning his death around 590 BC. SOURCES

Lillian B. Lawler, The Dance of Ancient Greek Theater (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1964). Sir Arthur Pickard-Cambridge, Tirambo, Tragedy and Comedy. 2ª Rev. ed. by T.B.L. Webster (Oxford, Inglaterra: Clarendon Press, 1962). Emmet Robbins, "Arion," in The New Pauly: Enzylopathy of the Old. Ed. Hubert Cancik and Helmut Scheider (Weimar/Stuttgart, Alemanha: Metzler, 1996): 1083–1084. Richard AS Seaford, "Arion", no Oxford Classical Dictionary. 3ª ed. (Oxford, Inglaterra: Oxford University Press, 1996): 158.

BATTLE

PILADES

mid 1st century BC - early 1st century AD

The dancers were rivals and their fans often clashed during street riots, so much so that Augustus briefly banished Pylades from Rome. Both had students, and one of Pylade's students, Hylas, became his teacher's rival. Bathyllus was famous for his comic pantomimes, while Pylades specialized in serious or tragic subjects from Greek mythology. THE NEW MIME. Information on Bathylus and Pylades is scarce, but it is clear that they introduced to Italy a new type of dance that combined features of the ancient Greek classical dance known as kordax, the more tragedy-worthy dance known as emmeleia. , and the dance from the satyr play called Sikinnis. Pylades actually wrote a treatise on dancing. Bathillus' performances were more light-hearted. An ancient author compared her dance to the hyporchyme, which was lively choral music and dance, although the resemblance to the spirit and joy of the hyporchyme existed since there were no choral dances in pantomime. Bathyllus is also said to have introduced the Memphis dance, which involved flexing all the muscles of the dancer's body to the rhythm of the music and dealing with serious matters. An ancient source mentioned performances of Bathyllus tragedies and Pylades comedies, so they may occasionally have crept into each other's territory. The date of Bathylus or Pylades' death is unknown, although in 2 B.C. C., Pylades produced and financed a festival but did not perform himself because he was too old. Bathilus was probably older than Pylades, so he stopped dancing around the same time or earlier, although some dancers had very long careers on stage. SOURCES

EJ Jory, "The Literary Evidence for the Beginnings of Imperial Patronage", Bulletin of the Institute for Classical Studies 28 (1981): 147-161. Sir William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. volume 1 (London, England: Walton and Maberly, 1849–1858): 474.

Pantomime Dancers INTRODUCTION TO PANTOMIME. The introduction of pantomime in Rome is attributed to two dancers, Bathillus and Pylades. Bathyllus was from Alexandria, Egypt and nothing is known of his early life. Somehow he became a slave to Maecenas, minister of public affairs to the Roman Emperor Augustus (r. 27 BC-14 AD), nephew and heir to Julius Caesar. Maecenas freed him and became his patron. Pylades, who came from Cilicia in Asia Minor, was a former slave of Emperor Augustus himself. The two 76

MEMPHIUS mid 2nd century AD – early 3rd century AD PANTOMIME ARTIST BACKGROUND. Menphius, also known as Apollo, was a famous mime artist from the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 161-180) and a great favorite of Lucius Verus, who was co-emperor with Marcus for the first seven and a half years. his reign when

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Verus was returning from a campaign against the Parthians, bringing with him actors from Syria, one of whom was a slave, Agrippo, whom Verus and Marcus Aurelius freed. Agrippus acquired the name Lucius Aurelius from his patrons, and he also had two nicknames, his stage name Apolaustus and Memphius (“Memphis pantomime”). Memphis, Egypt may have been where he rose to fame as a pantomime artist, or it may refer to the style of dancing that made him his specialty, as there was a Memphis dance where the dancer during flexed every muscle in his body during the performance. The first dancer to introduce the Menfian dance to Rome was Batilus of Alexandria in Egypt, who belonged to the reign of Emperor Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD). The name "Apolaustus" was the preferred nickname of pantomime performers; In fact, there was already a former slave named "Lucius Aelius Aurelius Apolaustus" who belonged to the imperial house before Menfio arrived in Rome. He was probably also a pantomime artist and had the misfortune of being executed in 189 AD by Emperor Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius. However, Menfio was still alive in 199 AD when mentioned in an application. PANTOMIME OF PYTHAGORAS. One pantomime that made Menfio famous was his portrayal of Pythagoras' philosophy in dance. Pythagoras was known for his theory of numbers, but by the 2nd century AD he was best known for his theory of transmigration. Since Memphius was in the tradition of Bathylus, whose portrayals were lighter than those of Pylades, Memphius' portrayal of Pythagorean wisdom was probably not particularly serious. CAREER AFTER LUCIUS VERUS. While Lucius Verus was still alive, Memphius was probably part of the entourage of actors, mime artists, and jugglers who formed part of his household. But Marcus Aurelius did not like Verus' hobbies, and Menfio had to build his own career. He had his own Grex, a troupe of backing musicians and dancers who performed in Rome and throughout Italy, where every respectable city had its own theater. He was hailed as "the pre-eminent actor of his time". The date of his death is unknown, but he still occurred in the late 2nd century AD. SOURCES

EJ Jory, "The Literary Evidence for the Beginnings of Imperial Patronage", Bulletin des Institute for Classical Studies 28 (1981): 147–161. Volksrepublik China Weaver, Familie Caesaris (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972).

THEODORA c. 500 AD–548 AD Mime artist Empress DAUGHTER OF A BEAR GUARDIAN. The woman who would one day become Empress of the Roman Empire was born as one of three daughters to the Bear Keeper of the Green Faction, the company that produced chariot racing and theatrical entertainment in Constantinople. Her father died when Theodora and her sisters were very young, and Theodora's mother remarried, expecting her new husband to take over her ex-husband. However, his plan was thwarted when the Green faction's top ballet master, who had the right to choose a new bear keeper, was bribed to choose another candidate. The twist of fate left Teodora's small family destitute, but Teodora's mother insisted on securing her daughters' future. He disguised her as a supplicant and placed her in front of the Greens fans' seating area in the Hippodrome in Constantinople, begging for mercy. Though the Greens didn't care, the blue zealots felt sorry for the small family and gave Theodora's stepfather the job of their faction's bear keeper. HE WENT ON STAGE. As soon as they were old enough, Theodora and her sisters took the stage. Her older sister Comito soon became a star, and Theodora's first role was as Comito's assistant, carrying a stool for her on which Comito could briefly rest between dances. Teodora herself did not shine as a dancer. He excelled as a interpreter of myths, however, and one that was particularly popular with audiences was his pantomime of Leda and the Swan, which related the myth of how Leda, the mother of Helen of Troy, was raped while she was in it bathed. if in the god Zeus disguised as a swan. Like most actresses and dancers on the Roman stage, she worked as a prostitute and had an illegitimate daughter during this period of her life. One of her lovers, who bought a provincial government, took her to his province in modern Libya. They soon fell out, however, and when Theodora was discarded by the governor, she was left to her own devices. TRANSFORMATION. Theodora went to Alexandria, which was full of refugees from religious persecution. At that time the Christian church was divided by a dispute about the nature of Christ. Catholics held that Christ had both a human and divine nature as set out in the Chalcedonian Creed, while their views

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Speakers believed that the divine nature of Christ was dominant; Some have argued that it even involved the human nature of Christ. When Justin I became emperor in AD 518, he launched a persecution of the anti-Chalcedonians throughout the empire except Egypt, and so the anti-Chalcedonians fled to Alexandria. There Theodora came into contact with them and converted to their faith. She then went to Antioch, modern day Antakya in Turkey, and there she was befriended by a dancer named Macedonia who belonged to the Blue Faction troupe. Macedonia had a second run; As well as being a dancer, she was also a secret agent for Justinian, the Emperor's nephew, and it was probably thanks to her that Theodora met Justinian. They fell in love, and although it was illegal for an upper-class Roman to marry an actress, Justinian persuaded Emperor Justin to enact a law allowing the marriage. After Justin died in AD 527, Justinian and Theodora became emperors and empresses. EMPRESS. Theodora did not forget her old theater friends when she became Empress. Dancers with names like Chrysomallo and Indaro were welcome at the palace. Justinian also passed a series of laws that made it easier for actors to give up their careers if they wished, and to marry upper-class citizens. In fact, Theodora found suitable husbands for the daughters of some of her old friends. She was Justinian's partner in power and did not hesitate to intervene in theological disputes on behalf of anti-Catholics. Justinian favored the Catholics but had enormous respect for Theodora's intelligence. The Assyrian and Coptic churches in the Middle East and Egypt hold Theodora in high esteem and reject the story that it was an exact one. However, the evidence that she had a career as a stage dancer before meeting Justiniano seems strong. He died of cancer in AD 548. SOURCES

Robert Browning, Justinian and Theodora. Ed. Rev. (London, England: Thames and Hudson, 1987). James Allan Evans, The Empress Theodora: Partner of Justinian (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002). Lynda Garland, Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium AD 527-1205 (London, England: Routledge, 1999).

DOCUMENTARY SOURCES on dancing Aeschylus, Supplicant (462 BC) – Aeschylus' tragedy Supplicant is the best surviving example of drama whose effect relies on the interpretative dance of the chorus, which in this case could have numbered fifty members instead of the usual fifteen . Apuleius, Metamorphoses (commonly known as 'The Golden Ass', c. AD 180): The 'Golden Ass', the only complete surviving Latin novel, contains a description of a production dance and pantomime in book 10.29–34. performed in Corinth. Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae ("The Scholars at a Feast", c. AD 200): Written in Greek by Athenaeus of Naucratis in Egypt, the Deipnosophistae is an imaginary symposium at which scholars discuss all sorts of subjects, both in both the first and second fourteenth book, its themes include dance. Athenaeus is an important source of modern knowledge of ancient dance. Homer, Iliad (ca. 750 BC): The eighteenth book of Homer's Iliad contains an ekphrasis, or detailed description, of a scene from everyday Greek life in which there is a verbal image of young men and women dancing on a dance floor . Dancing as for Ariadne, daughter of King Minos, at Knossos, Minoan Crete. Lucian of Samosata, Peri Orcheseos ("On the Dance", ca. 165 AD): Author of about eighty plays, most of them in dialogue form. Lucian wrote a pantomime dance dialogue in which he imagines a pantomime lover defeating a cynical philosopher who condemned him. Xenophon, Anabasis ("The Inland Expedition", c. 360 BC): Xenophon, an Athenian, a student of Socrates in his youth, accompanied Prince Cyrus of Persia in his attempt to rescue his elder brother, King Artaxerxes II. to fall. The Anabasis, which describes the ill-fated expedition of Cyrus and the return home of his troop of ten thousand mercenaries, includes a description of the folk dances of the various ethnic groups that made up the troupe. Xenophon's Symposium is another source for ancient dance, as it describes professional dancers who provided entertainment at a banquet attended by Socrates.

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chapter three

MODAJames Allan Evans

IMPORTANT EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 TOPICS Fashion in the Minoan Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Garments in Classical Greece. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 The Cloak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Textiles from the Greek and Roman Worlds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Dress to impress in Greece and Rome. . . . . . . 102 The clothes of the Roman women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 The Soldier's Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 IMPORTANT PEOPLE OF Alcibíades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Constantius II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Diogenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 DOCUMENTARY SOURCES . . . . . . . . . 115 SIDEBARS AND MAIN DOCUMENTS Primary sources are listed in italics

The adoption of the Ionian chiton (Herodotus describes how a military defeat affected the fashion of Athens). . . . . . . . . 89

The importance of the toga (Livio describes the role of the toga in public commerce). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 The costume of Emperor Augustus (John the Lydian describes the various styles of Augustus' dress) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 The production of flax (Pliny explains the processing of flax to obtain the flax fiber). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Unusual Dress of the Emperor Gaius Caligula (Suetonius describes Caligula's unique style of fashion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 coan silk (Aristotle describes the origin of coan silk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Thucydides on Athenian fashions (Thucydides comments on the changing Greek fashions). . . . . 103 New Fashions from Persia (a work by Aristophanes reflects the influence of Persian fashions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Effeminate Dress (Gellius reports criticism of men wearing long-sleeved tunics). . . . . . 105 epitaphs of a seamstress and hairdresser (inscriptions of two slaves of wealthy Roman women). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Seductive Dress in Augusta Rome (Ovid advises women on fashion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

336 BC Macedonian king Alexander the Great begins his campaign that will lead to the conquest of the Persian Empire, opening the Middle East to the Greeks and exposing them to Persian fashion.

IMPORTANT EVENTS in fashion c. 1700 BC In Neopalatial Minoan Crete Pe–c. 1450 BC River frescoes show women wearing short jackets that expose their breasts and a full skirt that falls from a sash at the waist. The men, when not naked, wear a kind of short double apron that covers the genitals. around 1200 BC The safety pin appears in Greece, indicating that women were already wearing peplos fastened to the shoulders with safety pins called peronai. w. 600 BC By the late Early Archaic period, the Ionic chiton became popular in Athens, replacing the simpler Doric chiton, or peplos, which remains the standard dress for women in Sparta and other Doric states. 594 BC CE Solon, the chief magistrate (Greek archon) of Athens, enacted a law forbidding women from wearing more than three garments at funerals or festivals. This is an attempt to curb the overly elaborate fashion that was introduced in Athens along with the Ionian chiton. 490 BC Persia makes an unsuccessful attempt at -479 BC. Conquest of Greece and after the Persian War there is a shift in favor of simpler fashions and away from the elaborate fashions associated with Persia.

330 BC The last Persian king of the Archaemenid dynasty, Darius III. Codomannus is deposed and murdered, and Alexander claims to be his successor. He begins to adopt Persian costume, causing an antagonistic reaction among his Macedonian troops, who believe he is deviating from the traditions of their homeland. 323 BC Alexander the Great dies in Babylon. From their conquered territories, his generals build kingdoms whose capitals become fashionable leaders (Pella in the kingdom of Macedonia; Antioch and Seleucia-on-the-Tigris in the kingdom of the Seleucids; and Alexandria in the kingdom of the Ptolemies in Egypt). 205 BC Publius Scipio the Younger, an aspiring commander in the second war between Rome and Carthage, wears Greek clothing instead of the Roman toga, thereby influencing the style of the members of the Roman ruling class, who feel attracted to Greek fashion. 189 BC Sometime after this date, a luxury fabric called Attalic was marketed in Rome. The "athalian" fabric is a gold-embroidered fabric made in the workshops of Attalus II, king of Pergamum, in Asia Minor, with embroidery by Phrygian embroiderers renowned for their skill in working with gold thread.

In Athens, the peplos are back in a big way.

80 B.C. Julius Caesar, who died -79 BC. becomes. from Rome. The most famous general and politician is called the "boy in loose clothes" by the dictator Sulla, because under his purple striped toga and a loose belt Caesar wore a tunic with fringes to the wrists.

w. 430 BC In Athens, Persian fashion became popular again among wealthy citizens.

13 B.C. The foundation stone of the “Peace Altar” is erected in Rome

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Roman Senate on the Campus Martius (Field of Mars). The southern frieze of the altar shows the imperial family, with the exception of Emperor Augustus himself, in a procession and illustrates the new way of draping the Roman toga in the Augustan period. 37 AD Emperor Gaius Caligula -41 AD introduces fashions borrowed from eastern monarchies along with divine kings to Rome's imperial court. w. AD 90. A portrait of an unknown Roman woman, now in the Capitoline Museum, Rome, is carved and shows an elaborate hairstyle with hair gathered in tight curls above the forehead. The hairstyle is a wig that can be removed from the head and replaced with a wig of a different style. 117 AD The Roman Emperor Hadrian, who reigned in these years 138 AD, prefers the Greek style and wears one

which resembles the Greek himation or cloak. 284 AD Emperor Diocletian Institutes –305 AD Changes to imperial office and introduces elaborate and jeweled dress for the imperial court, among other reforms. 324 AD Emperor Constantine fashioned the imperial regalia as a jeweled tiara, that is, a beaded band of cloth tied at the back with a knot around the head, the ends dangling. 547 AD The Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, with mosaics showing Justinian (Emperor 527–565 AD) and Theodora (Empress 527–548 AD), is dedicated. The mosaics give a vivid depiction of the fashions of the imperial court in the 6th century, at a time when the Byzantine court placed more emphasis on court ceremonies.

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Fashion OVERVIEW DRESSES MAKE PEOPLE. In the 21st century, fashions in clothing and hairstyles are temporary trends that are significantly influenced by the media and fashion designers. Fashion can change quickly, often with designers introducing seasonal clothing lines, utilizing a variety of natural and synthetic fabrics. However, the existence of fashion trends does not negate the fact that fashion can also be a highly individual expression, with everyone personally deciding what to wear. This modern concept of fashion is in stark contrast to fashion in the world of the Greeks and Romans, where there was little change in clothing trends, no designer and few fabrics available to wear. Additionally, clothing acted as a social tool to emphasize the strict social and gender classifications of these ancient societies. A person's clothing denoted a particular condition of life rather than an expression of individuality; For example, women often dressed according to their marital status, with young women wearing clothing that differed from married women's clothing. Even hairstyles provided telltale clues as to whether a woman was married or not, and the scandalous conduct of an adulteress or prostitute earned her an outfit as distinctive as Hester Prynne's scarlet letter "A" in Nathaniel Hawthorne's novel A scarlet letter. in nineteenth-century America. Men were no less exempt from such obvious labels, as generals, politicians, soldiers, youths, and slaves each wore distinctive clothing denoting their rank. FABRICS. Wool and linen were the main fabrics of the Minoan/Mycenaean period; Cotton also existed, although it was not commonly used until Roman times. Hemp was also used to make cloth in Thrace, modern-day Bulgaria and northeastern Greece, but in the rest of the Graeco-Roman world hemp was valued more as rope than cloth. Greece had its own silk industry on the island of Kos, using fibers unraveled from the cocoons of a local moth, 82

the pachypassa otus. However, its production was small and probably inferior to Chinese silk, a luxury fabric only the wealthy could afford. The Greeks and Romans valued silk so much that they sometimes frayed silk fabrics and wove them with linen threads to stretch clothing. In the 6th century AD, the Byzantine Empire under Emperor Justinian (527-565 AD) acquired silkworm eggs smuggled from China and established their own silk industry. Greeks and Romans also used leather and fur. Agamemnon, the legendary leader of the Greek coalition in the Trojan War, is said to have worn a lion skin and his brother Menelaus a leopard skin, probably imported from Egypt. However, the vast majority of Greeks and Romans had clothing made from wool and linen. SPORTS WEAR OR LACK OF THEM. In the summer heat, Greek men probably dressed as little as decency would allow, for unlike Middle Eastern civilizations, Greek culture seems to have glorified itself in bare flesh. In gyms, men were naked to train and fight (the word gymnos itself means "naked" in Greek). Also in Sparta, a big city in Greece, women trained naked. Nudity wasn't always fashionable; in early Greece, before the 7th century B.C. AEC, men wore loincloths, but according to legend the style changed after a runner named Orsippos of Megara won his race at the Olympics after removing his loincloth mid-race. From there, athletes competed naked in the Olympics, and the practice spread to the rest of Greece. STANDARD CLOTHING IN GREECE AND ROME. Standard clothing in Greece and Rome had one thing in common: it required a minimum of sewing. While the Greeks' neighbors in Asia Minor, the Phrygians, were famous for their embroidery, particularly fine embroidery with gold thread, the Greeks themselves apparently did not imitate this specialized embroidery. The Greek needle was much less sophisticated than the modern needle; In fact, the Greek word for "needle" - raphis - is rarely found in Greek writings, suggesting that among the domestic pursuits of Greek women, sewing was second only to weaving. The Greeks and Romans had buttons and ties, safety pins called peronai in Greek, and fibulae in Latin, and these sometimes took the form of elaborate brooches. The two types of clothing common in Greece, the chiton (tunic) and himation (cloak) were rectangular pieces of cloth that covered the body. The same was true of the Roman toga. The original meaning of the word "toga" seems to have been "covering", and in early Rome it was so

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simply remove a piece of homemade woolen cloth worn during the day to keep the wearer warm and used as a light blanket at night. The shape of the toga is disputed; Some ancient authors called it a semi-circular piece of cloth, but it was probably more of a semi-ellipse than a true semi-circle. Originally it was humble peasant dress, but it became the standard attire of a Roman citizen and several variations were developed. A style that the Romans, for example, learned from their neighbors, the Etruscans, who introduced them in the 3rd century BC. B.C., was the short toga, decorated with rich embroidery and dyed purple, or a multicolored combination of purple, white, and scarlet. It was worn by members of the ancient Roman college of priests known as the Salii, the Leaping Priests of Mars, who celebrated the March and October festivals of Mars with ritual dances. The attire of a Roman priest making sacrifices to the gods was simply a toga with a hood covering the head. (Sacrifices performed in the Roman rite in the Roman manner required a head covering - capite velato - while those performed in the Greek rite in the Greek manner left the head uncovered.) Roman senators and members Most councilors were run as cities in the empire and wore togas on affairs of state, and while there were city councils in the Roman Empire, there were still occasions when men wore togas. Dressing in Rome means status. The toga with broad purple sash indicated the wearer was a senator, while the narrow purple sash indicated the wearer was of class below the class of senators known as equites. This group began as a Roman order of chivalry in the early days of the empire that gave rise to the Roman cavalry, but later became simply a census group. Proper attire for a married woman was a stole, a shawl with which to cover her head when going outdoors where it was inappropriate to be seen bareheaded. Inappropriately dressed people would face contempt from society and sometimes even penalties from the law. MILITARY CLOTHING. Military attire was practical and evolved as fighting styles shifted from single combat to structured military formations. The ancient Greek warrior, for example, was usually a foot soldier fighting as an individual for his own glory; The crest of horsehair on his helm was a challenge to his enemy. This type of warrior gave way to the hoplite, a heavily armed foot soldier with a helmet, cuirass, greaves (which protected the lower legs), and a triangular metal plate called a miter to protect the groin. The hoplites fought in battle formation, eight ranks deep and standing, foot to foot, with their round shields on their left arms and spears in their right hands.

In camp, a hoplite wore a military cloak; The cloaks of the Spartan hoplites were red, the color of blood. The Roman soldier was also equipped for battle with a helmet, chain mail (later replaced by a cuirass), and a military boot called a caliga for the feet (hence Emperor Gaius' childhood nickname "caligula" or "little boot") . ). and a cloak called Sagum that left the arms free. Sagum was a practical garment; it was recommended for agricultural workers in adverse weather conditions by a Roman writer on agriculture named Columella. The Roman army had workshops for arms and armor and sometimes these states also state-owned and state-run factories produced clothing for the troops. ORNAMENTS AND COSMETICS Although their style of dress changed little, the Greeks and Romans had a sense of style, the perfume market was lively and the hairstyles were local varies by location. Spartan hoplites wore their hair long and arranged it carefully. Elsewhere, Greek men wore their hair short after they reached adulthood. After the time of Alexander the Great, who died in 323 B.C. died. CE, Greek men shaved their beards, and the fashion continued in the third century BC. in Rome by. With Emperor Hadrian (117-135 AD), beards came back into fashion. Lucius Verus, who was briefly co-emperor of Marcus Aurelius, is said to have used gold dust to give his beard a fashionable yellow sheen. Roman women's hairstyles were often elaborate and dyes were used to achieve the fashionable blonde color. Wigs hid bald or thinning hair, and a wig with hair supplied by a German woman across the Rhine border was a safer way to go blonde than using strong dyes that could damage your hair. CHANGES IN LATE ANTIQUES. As the empire moved from a period of invasions, plagues and short-lived emperors in the 3rd century AD. By the more stable fourth century, fashions, at least among the upper classes, became more elaborate. By the late 4th century, Chinese silk had become fashionable among the elite. The imperial court loved jewellery, especially pearls. Condition marked clothing. The long, embroidered robes worn by noblemen and noble ladies corresponded to their living situation, while the bourgeoisie were content with somewhat simpler clothing. Priests of the Christian Church were distinguished by their dress, typically adaptations of Roman dress. The tunics of the nobles and the robes of the priests are far removed from the clothes of the peasants, who wore a kind of sagum or cucullus - hooded cloak to protect the head - or the barbarians, who wore trousers. However, the toga retained its prestige as the proper attire of a togatus, or Roman citizen. Archaeologists have found a sculptor's site near Rome

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was still producing statues as late as the fourth century AD. They were impeccably dressed in robes, with lace to hold up the interchangeable portrait heads. The presence of such statues does not mean that the toga was widespread during this period; Roman troops had long ago traded the toga for more practical fashions, many borrowed from the so-called barbarian world.

TOPICS in fashion FASHION

MINOAN PERIOD

PROOF. The history of Greek fashion dates back as far as the Bronze Age to the Minoan culture on the island of Crete in mainland Greece. Evidence of clothing worn in Minoan Crete comes mainly from the frescoes that decorated the walls of the palaces and from Minoan figurines found on the island. Clothing and textiles from this period have long since decayed, although a linen find from a pre-palatial tomb (3500-1900 BC) has been reported at the site of Mochlos in northeast Crete. .w.) . It was probably imported from Egypt, but it shows that flax was known and used in Crete before the Minoan civilization arrived in the early second millennium BC. entered history. Egypt also provides evidence of Minoan fashion. At Thebes, the capital of Egypt during the 18th dynasty, murals on five tombs of high officials from the early years of the dynasty depict foreigners from the Aegean paying tribute to the pharaoh. One such tomb dates from the mid-15th century BC. In the Neo-Palace or “New Palace” period of Crete (1700–1450 BC), it belonged to Rekhmire, a vizier (high executive officer) of Pharaoh Thutmose III, and in it these Aegean are referred to as “princes of the land of Keftiu ' So Crete. The artists who made these paintings of the Cretan envoys clearly made an effort to accurately depict their clothing. MAN'S CLOTHES. The basic garment for men was a loincloth, tucked in at the waist and fastened with a belt or sash. Loincloth styles varied by place and time; Some styles seem to have been fashionable in certain regions. The loincloth can be worn like a kilt, slung loosely around the waist, or tucked under the crotch, making it a kind of shorts. Actually sew the thong flaps, front 84

and at the back, together below the crotch, it becomes short. This is a style found at Mycenae where a bronze dagger depicting a lion hunt on its blade with gold inlays has been unearthed. The scene shows men wearing shorts buttoned below the crotch. Men usually wore nothing above the waist, as in Egypt. When the colder weather called for an extra blanket to keep warm, there were hides and skins of wild animals that could be used as cloaks. KILTS AND PAIRS. A bow tie is defined as a flap fastened to the front of a pair of tight pants worn by men in the 15th and 16th centuries, but the term is meant to describe a feature of men's clothing in Minoan Crete. In early depictions it is shown as having straight and narrow lapels, sometimes worn with just a belt and no loincloth underneath. In the New Palace period (1700-1450 BC) it is commonly depicted as a wide lapel worn over a short, stiff kilt, which was slit at the sides to expose the thighs and tucked back like a duck's tail . But after 1500 B.C. C., the bow tie apparently went out of fashion and was replaced by long petticoats, carried by a sash or, in the course of time, by a wide belt; sometimes a large beaded tassel substituted for the codpiece. The "Keftiu" paintings from the tomb of Rekhmire in Thebes, Egypt, bear witness to the change in style. The paintings depict Cretans (residents of the island of Crete) wearing long kilts with no flys, but recent cleanings of these paintings have revealed that the Cretans' clothing was altered shortly after the paintings were originally painted. As originally depicted, the Cretans wore short, stiff kilts with trousers. Scholars suggest that the Egyptians, realizing that Crete fashion had changed, altered paintings to update costumes. WOMAN'S CLOTHING. In the Prepalatial period (1900-1700 BC) women wore long skirts with sashes wrapped twice around the waist and tied with the ends hanging forward. The bodices exposed the breasts and the suits had collars that reached to the nape of the neck. In the early Protopalate period, women appeared to wear cloaks composed of a semicircular piece, probably made of wool, although scholars have suggested that it may have been leather. She put a sash around her waist and tied it in front. Holes were cut for the arms, the breasts were bare, and there was a high collar at the nape of the neck. Over time, skirts became more elaborate. In paintings they are often depicted with ruffles, and when women appear at court ceremonies their skirts feature intricate designs that require skillful weaving. Minoan women, if they could afford it, clearly took great care of them

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your closets. A feature of Minoan women's clothing of the Neopalace period (1700-1450 BC) is an elaborate belt, sometimes padded, sometimes seemingly of metal, covering the abdomen where the bodice joins the skirt. There is also evidence of a patterned apron that falls from the belt not only on the front but also on the back. It actually appears to be modeled after the loincloth worn by men. In the late period of the Minoan civilization on Crete (after 1450 BC) and also in the Mycenaean civilization on the mainland, which was heavily influenced by the Minoan style, images show women wearing floor-length ruffled skirts woven into intricate designs and seemingly cut so that the hem of the skirt falls at both the center front and center back. It is not entirely clear whether these depictions accurately represent the clothing; It has been suggested that artists who painted women in skirts of this type were simply trying to show split skirts, or alternatively that this was their way of depicting the full-skirted movement of women walking. However, there is no doubt that the Cretan women who took part in palace life wore elaborate costumes of bright colors and were undoubtedly expensive. However, only a small percentage of women were allowed to dress at court, and it is difficult to ascertain what common women wore, as they were not usually the subject of palace frescoes. However, an ivory seal was found at Knossos depicting a girl in a sweater hanging loosely from her shoulders to her knees without a belt. The skirt is short but still appears to have elegant ruffles. The seal is suspected to be a fake, but if genuine it is evidence of short skirts among the common women of Minoan Crete.

Minoan woman or goddess called La Parisienne: fragment of a fresco from the Palace of Knossos, Crete. In the Museum of Heraklion, Crete. © ROGER WOOD/CORBIS.

SHOES AND CAPS. The Minoans went barefoot in religious ceremonies and probably in their private homes, but when shoes were necessary they wore boots and sandals. The Greek word for "sandal" (sandalon) is of pre-Greek origin and may date back to Minoan times, before Greek speakers arrived in Crete. Boots and sandals are often shown with the toes up. As for the headdress, the usual type was a broad, flat cap for men, while women, at least in the Proto-Palacean period (before 1700 BC), wore pointed hats like the Phrygian caps, which had high peaks so were inverted, that the beak pointed forward. There is evidence of a variety of female headgear after this period, but much of this evidence comes from paintings depicting religious ceremonies. Whether women in secular settings wore a similar headdress is debatable.

Necklaces, anklets and a wide range of earrings in gold, silver, copper, bronze and semi-precious stones. Jewelers were remarkably skilled. They had the technical knowledge to perform the delicate work that required brazing tiny gold or silver wires. They also produced extremely fine-grained work, in which tiny grains of gold were soldered onto a gold or silver backing. They mastered the technique of inlaid and laid on stone or paste, in which a design is engraved on a thin sheet of metal by pressing from behind, creating the pattern embossed on one side of the sheet and the same stamped pattern. from bottom to top on the other. French excavators unearthed one of the most remarkable examples of the Minoan jewelry trade in the tomb of Mallia on the north coast of Crete and now in the Heraklion Museum. It is a pendant in the shape of a bee, designed and executed with great skill.

JEWEL. Men and women wore a variety of jewelry including bracelets, bracelets on their wrists,

FABRICS. As in classical Greece, the basic material in Minoan Crete was wool. much that is written

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Tablets found at Knossos document flocks of sheep, possibly rescued for their wool. The Minoans also used flax; They probably first imported it from Egypt but may have later produced their own flax. Mycenaean Greece, which borrowed its style from Minoan Crete, definitely produced linen, since written texts from Pylos in southwestern Greece date back to around 1200 BC. date. C. refer to the cultivation of flax in the region. The Minoans wove cloth on vertical looms of the type used in later Greece, and although no looms survive (they were wooden and all long ago rotted), a stone with two rectangular holes was used in a Minoan house at Ayia Varvara in Crete cut into them they were found in the women's quarters; Archaeologists suggest it may have supported the vertical posts of a loom. As primitive as these vertical looms may appear, a look at Minoan women's clothing shows that they could produce intricate designs. DYES. Linen is difficult to dye, so linen clothing was often left white. However, wool accepts pigments well, and vegetable dyes were commonly used for dyeing. It is almost certain that the Minoans imported the dried leaves of the henna plant from Egypt to make a red dye, and the addition of baking soda (sodium carbonate), another Egyptian product, turned the henna dye yellow. Alkanet, a deep red dye made from the roots of a variety of plants, was another way to color fabrics, as was a purple dye made from the shellfish known as murex. Mounds of crushed murex shells have been found at coastal sites in eastern Crete, such as Palaikastro, and are good evidence of the manufacture of purple dye in the Proto-Palatinate and Neo-Palatinate periods. PERFUMES. There is good documentary evidence of a perfume industry in Crete and mainland Greece in the Bronze Age, before 1100 BC. The Palace of Pylos on the southwest coast of mainland Greece overlooking the Bay of Navarino built around 1200 BC. Chr. was suddenly destroyed by fire. C., made a cache of clay tablets written in the manuscript "Linear B", an ancient form of Greek, and which gives details of the manufacture of perfumes carried out under the direction of the palace bureaucracy. "Linear B" is a designation given to this script by modern archaeologists to distinguish it from "Linear A" which is found in Crete and is not Greek. The Pylos tablets give the names of four perfumers employed by the palace to make perfume. There is also evidence of perfume making at Knossos on Crete and Mycenae on the mainland. The ancient peoples of this area made perfumes by transferring the aroma to oil, most commonly olive oil. Although oil does not absorb aroma well, cooking aromatic leaves and strong-smelling buds with the oil gave an acceptable result for 86

the upper class in the Minoan and Mycenaean world. It is likely that both men and women used the perfumes. SOURCES

Arthur Cotterell, The Minoan World (Londres, Inglaterra: Michael Joseph, 1979). Reynold Alleyne Higgins, Minoan and Mycenaean Art (Londres, Inglaterra: Thames and Hudson, 1997). Sinclair Hood, The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age (Londres, Inglaterra: Thames and Hudson, 1971). Bernice Jones, "Revelando las modas minoicas", Arqueologia 53 (2000): 36–41. Cynthia Wright Shelmerdine, The Perfume Industry of Mycenaean Pylos (Göteberg, Germany: Paul Äströms Föring, 1985).

CLOTHING

CLASSICAL GREECE

PROBLEMS WITH THE TERMS. The names of Greek types of clothing can be confusing, not least because the Greeks themselves sometimes wore them carelessly. The oversight is understandable since every garment in ancient Greece, male or female, was made from a rectangle of fabric. The difference was in the size of the cloth and the way the body was covered. To add to the confusion, the Romans adopted Greek styles. Rome's national dress was the toga, but by the third century B.C. By 300 BC, Rome had extended its dominance to Greek cities in what was known as “Magna Graecia” (Magna Graecia) in southern Italy, and as more and more Romans learned about Greek culture, including fashion, the more they became fascinated. The Roman Publius Scipio Africanus, responsible for Hannibal's defeat at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. C., was one of the Roman leaders who adopted the Greek fashion in place of the Roman toga. The confusion stems from the fact that the Romans adapted Greek fashions to suit their own fashions, so finding exact Greek equivalents for Roman clothing is not always easy. The toga also seems to have begun its long history simply as a rectangular piece of cloth, the shape it was when it came off the loom. DORIAN VS IONICS. The Dorians were Greeks who lived after 1150 BC. in the Peloponnese, i.e. the region of Greece south of the Isthmus of Corinth, immigrated. as the Mycenaean civilization collapsed, and they founded a number of states, most notably Sparta in south-eastern Greece and Argos in the north. The Dorians favored physical fitness and simplicity in their daily lives, and Dorian fashion was reflected

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He. The Spartans in particular were famous for their strictness. Dorians liked simple fashions that allowed the body to move freely. Driven out by the Dorians, the Greeks fled to Athens and from there to the west coast of present-day Turkey and the nearby islands, where they founded twelve cities that grew and prospered. This was Ionian Greece: twelve cities united in a loosely organized league, and although there were more Greek foundations on the Turkish coast and islands than in the twelve Ionian cities, it was Ionia that set the style. Ionian fashion reflected the wealthy, comfortable and luxurious life of the Ionians, and although by the mid-6th century B.C. lost their independence in the 1st century BC, they continued to prosper. The type of clothing worn by the Dorians and Ionians was the same, but while the Dorians favored a simple, unadorned style, the Ionians favored more elaborate fashions and fine fabrics. In the 5th century B.C. However, the Ionian cities came under the rule of Athens and lost their supremacy as style designers. GREEK DRESS TERMS. The basic garment was the chiton, which was a tunic. When it was short it was called chitoniskos, meaning "small tunic", and when it was sleeveless, as it was usually the case, it was called exomis, meaning "sleeveless garment". There were some tunics with sleeves, which conservative Romans considered a sign of oriental luxury, although Rome's greatest general and politician, Julius Caesar, actually wore one. The terms become even more confusing with the Doric chiton, which is actually a peplos (a simple rectangle of folded fabric draped over the shoulders). The epic poem The Iliad, written by the Greek poet Homer, describes heroes fighting at Troy wearing a cloak over their tunic called a chlaina, or sometimes pharos; Strictly speaking, they weren't exactly the same as the pharos was a larger garment. In fact, Homer used the word pharos for any large piece of cloth, including a ship's sail or a shroud. Chlaina seems to have been a general term for any heavy wool coat worn in cold climates. In the classical period, the word usually referred to the robe called himation, an outer garment worn by both men and women. The Romans used the Latin word pallium for himation and considered it peculiarly Greek costume, to the point that comedies performed in Roman theaters and adapted from Greek plays were called fabulae palliatae, scenes performed in Greek costume became. Another popular cloak was the chlamys. It was a long piece of cloth folded into an almost perfect square. The Peplos, also called

A man wearing a canopy.

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GROUP.

The Dorian chiton was a rectangle of cloth that was folded at the top and then folded and draped over the body and held in place with safety pins or snaps at the shoulders. The crease or apotygma at the top of the garment may fall down to the waist. It was probably the first Greek dress for women and was capable of many variations. THE QUITON. The Greek word chiton is translated as robe in Latin, from which the English word "robe" is derived. It was a shirt worn directly on the body, sometimes as underwear. There is evidence of prototypes from the Minoan period, but by the Sub-Mycenaean period (after 1200 BC), around the same time the fibula or safety pin appeared in Greece, men began to wear a recognizable short sleeveless tunic. like the chiton worn by warriors in Homer's Iliad. The word chiton has an oriental origin as it is related to a Semitic word referring to linen fabrics; This evidence suggests that early chitons were linen clothing, although later they are often made of wool. chitons

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Man dressed in a short chiton.

CREATED BY CECILY EVANS. HE

Woman with a long chiton.

CREATED BY CECILY EVANS. HE

GALE GROUP.

came in a variety of styles. Young men and those who were regularly physically active preferred a short chiton that left the legs exposed. If the chiton skirt was too long, the wearer would lift it up and let it hang from the belt in a fold known as a kolpos. A warrior wore a chiton as undergarments under his cuirass (a piece of armor that protected his torso). A passage from the Iliad illustrates the use of a quitón in a description of how the warrior goddess Athena donned the armor: first the peplos, a woman's dress, was removed, and a quitón was donned as an inner garment between her heart and your skin. Those who are not as active, such as older men, men of high rank, and professional musicians, may wear a long chiton, reaching to the ankles, and a robe over it like the chlaina or the pharos. Chitons, both short and long, were widespread throughout the ancient Greek world.

the feet began to appear, leaving only the toes exposed. There are good ancient examples from Ionia where several seated statues have been found along the Sacred Path to the Temple of Apollo at Didyma. The so-called kore girl statues (Greek: korai), which were made in 480 B.C. in Athens among the rubble of the Persian sack of the Acropolis. They also provide models for the chitons worn by women in the middle and late Archaic periods. They were of fine linen and fell to the feet in even folds, and over them a woman wore a shawl or cloak like the himation or chlaina. Evidence from carvings suggests that Ionian chitons were made around 600 BC. B.C. came into fashion in Athens. C. and replaced the Doric peplos or chiton as it was sometimes called. The historian Herodotus wrote in the second half of the 5th century BC. C.E., explained the exchange of the peplos in Athens as a result of a violent incident, the veracity of which cannot be verified. According to Herodotus in the early 7th century B.C. The Athenians attacked the island of Aegina in the Saronic Gulf. He failed and was only a survivor of the Athenian expeditionary force

THE IONIC CHITON. Around 600 BC C., the end of what art historians call the "Early Archaic Period," Statues of women in chitons living to be 88 years old

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ADOPTION OF IONIC CHITON INTRODUCTION:

late 7th century BC From CE, the ornate Ionian chiton became fashionable among Athenian women. Unlike the peplos, or Doric chiton as it was sometimes called, the Ionic chiton did not require safety pins. According to Athenian tradition, the fashion changed after a horrific incident involving the sole survivor of a disastrous Athenian military expedition against Athens' rival Aegina. When the man with the bad news returned to Athens, the widows of the lost soldiers killed him with the weapon most readily available to them: the safety pins in his clothes. Later, Athenian women's fashion changed to a style that did not require pins. The historian Herodot reported in a writing from the second half of the 5th century BC. CE about the incident.

The Argives and Aeginetes agree with this account, and the Athenians also admit that only one of their men returned to Attica alive: the only point of contention is the cause of his flight, which the Argives say he escaped after destroying the rest had the Athenian military force, the Athenians claimed it was all an act of God. Even the sole survivor soon met a bad end; for when he arrived in Athens with the news of the disaster, the wives of the other men who had gone with him

went to Athens. On his return, the widows of the men lost at Aegina attacked him and stabbed him with the safety pins of their Dorian chitons, sad and angry that only he had survived. The Athenians were so shocked by this murder that they passed a law forbidding women from wearing the Doric chitons tied around their shoulders and mandated that they wear the Ionian chiton, which was sewn and wore no security . Pens that can become deadly weapons. However, the Aeginets continued to wear safety pins, as did the Argives, who helped the Aeginets defeat the Athenians. In fact, Herodotus claimed they introduced safety pins with even longer shafts that were deadlier. REACTION AGAINST DORIAN'S DRESS. Even if the incident happened, it probably wasn't a one-off event that caused the switch to the Ionian style of women's clothing. Both the Aeginetes and Argives were Dorians and spoke the Doric dialect of Greek, while the Athenians were Ionians and women were on the rise, adopting the fashion of the Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor, whose cities were prospering at the time.

for Aegina, sad and angry that only he had escaped, they crowded around him and fastened the brooches they used to fasten his clothes to his flesh, each one while he slashed open and asked where her husband was. So he perished, and the Athenians were more appalled at his fate than at the defeat of his troops at Aegina. The only way to punish his wives for the dreadful thing was to dress them in Ionian robes; before that, Athenian women wore Doric dress, very similar to the fashion in Corinth; now they were forced to wear linen tunics to avoid wearing brooches. In fact, this type of clothing is originally not Ionian, but Carian, since in ancient times all women in Greece wore what is now known as Doric costume. But the Argives and Aeginetes enacted a law that in both countries brooches should be only half the size of formerly, and that brooches should be the chief articles offered by women in the sanctuaries of these two deities; furthermore, nothing was to be brought into the temple from Attica, not even pottery, and henceforth only home-made drinking vessels were to be used. From that time to the present day, because of the quarrel with Athena, the women of Argos and Aegina wear brooches with longer pins than before. SOURCE:

Herodotus, Histories. Ed. rev. Trans. Aubrey de Selincourt (London: Penguin Books, 1972): 309–310.

political statement. Later, when Ionia after 546 B.C. was conquered by Persia. CE, Athenians tended to look down on the Ionians because they were no longer free men and their splendid fashions indicated readiness to be subjects of the Persian king; In Greek thought, everything Persian was associated with luxury and opulent living. But at the beginning of the 7th century B.C. C.E., Ionia was the cultural leader of Greece. Men in Athens also wore Ionian chitons, and Thucydides, a younger contemporary of Herodotus, comments that older Athenians of his day still wore them. But the Persian Wars in the first quarter of the fifth century B.C. it marked the beginning of a taste for simpler fashions in Athens; In Doric Greece, the Doric chiton never went out of style. In the new post-war world, the ornate Ionian chiton was a symbol of oriental luxury and easy living. It indicated the Persian way of life. FASHION IN QUITONS. The peplos came back into fashion in Athens after the Persian Wars, but did not replace the chiton. In fact, the chiton and peplos existed in the 5th century BC. side by side. C., Borrowing characteristics from each other. The kandys, a chiton

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man with himation.

CREATED BY CECILY EVANS. the storm

GROUP.

CREATED BY CECILY EVANS. HE

GALE GROUP.

with long sleeves over a longer chiton became fashionable among free women throughout the century. Mangoes were considered exotic; the Persians wore them, and in the last quarter of the fifth century fashionable Athenians developed a taste for styles with touches of Persian opulence. Also from the same century are examples of a short, waist-length tunic worn over the chiton. It is probably a so-called chitoniskos, or "small chiton", apparently made of a heavier fabric than the chiton itself and often richly decorated. Men of the Classical period abandoned the Ionian chiton, as noted by Thucydides, but it continued to be worn by priests, charioteers, singers, musicians, and actors. The short, sleeveless chiton has remained in fashion among athletically active men. However, for ceremonial occasions, the himation has become the preferred attire. THE HIMATION. The himation was an essential outer garment for both men and women. It was simply a generously proportioned, oblong wool scarf. There were several ways to wrap it around the body. a 90

woman with himation.

For example, the woman could tuck it under her right arm and fasten or tie it around her left shoulder. In colder climates he could cover his torso with it and pull it over his head like a hood. However, he sometimes wore a separate piece of cloth to cover his head, with one end draped over the himation. A man threw his himation around his body from left to right and bound his arms; indeed, it was a knight's mark not to stretch out an arm outside his himation. Wearing the himation gracefully was a sign of social standing in the community and not always an easy achievement, as the himation was generally worn without fasteners such as buttons or safety pins, and the wearer was sometimes forced to use the concealed hands. . through your himation to hold it in place. It was a very uncomfortable garment for a worker who usually wore a sleeveless tunic called an exomis. In fact, wearing a himation meant the user didn't have to do any physical labor. Politicians and philosophers liked it, and in portrait carving it carried some of the same connotations as the Roman toga, which it somewhat resembled.

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mounted It showed that the wearer was not a member of the common people, and was a good article of clothing to wear when giving a lecture or public speech. THE PEPS. The peplos was a female garment made from an elongated piece of woolen fabric. The cloth was first folded horizontally so that the top quarter was at the back, and then folded top to bottom. The result was a piece of cloth folded into a square with a fold, called an apotygma in Greek, at the top edge. It covered the wearer's body and was fastened with safety pins or snaps at each shoulder, allowing it to hang freely. On the right side the peplos were open and the woman's body could be seen as she moved. Young women in the Greek city of Sparta liked this style, but women elsewhere often wore a belt or sash around the waist to keep the side of the peplos closed, thus maintaining the wearer's modesty. The open side of the peplos can also be fastened; In Homer's Odyssey, one of the suitors, trying to flatter Penelope, Odysseus' wife, presented him with a peplos with twelve golden pins. Since it only needed two or four loops at most to fasten it over the shoulders, the rest was probably used to keep the side open. THE ORIGIN OF PEPLOS. The peplos was not a Mycenaean costume and probably arrived in Greece around the same time as the safety pin, i.e. the Sub-Mycenaean period (after 1200 BC), after the citadels of the Mycenaean civilization had fallen and the great palaces destroyed. Doric newcomers may have brought the peplos with them after migrating to Greece in the Sub-Mycenaean period, so the name "Doric chiton" sometimes applied to the peplos may be justified. However, it was also used in early Athens up until the end of the Archaic period, around 600 BC. BC, used. C. when women switched to the Ionic chiton. With the reaction in Athens against frills and frivolities after the Persian War, peplos came back into fashion. In Sparta and the rest of Doric Greece, the Ionic chiton never replaced the peplos. As the Greek language evolved, the word "peplos" took on a broader meaning and was applied to a variety of garments. However, there was one case where the word "peplos" continued to mean a plain piece of old-fashioned wool cloth folded into a woman's dress. Every four years, the women of the city presented a newly woven tunic to the goddess Athena at the festival of the Great Panathenaea in Athens. They used it to clothe the ancient wooden statue of Athena Polias, i.e. Athena, guardian of the city, the most sacred cult statue in Athens, kept in the well-known temple

Woman with peplos.

CREATED BY CECILY EVANS. the storm

GROUP.

like the Erechtheum. The tunic was a peplos and the pattern has not changed. TYPES OF PEPLOS. Styles change over time and Peplos are no exception. Since the classical period of the 5th century B.C. In addition, we must distinguish between peplos worn without underwear, known as endyma peplos, and peplos worn over a chiton, epiblema peplos. The sash in early examples of peplos simply encircled the waist but with the skirt layered over it to form a loose fold. The apoptigma or crease, which was initially short, lengthened until it reached the hips. On statues and relief sculptures from the 4th century BC. The fold is sometimes shown to fall freely, but over time the girdle held it in place. Worn over a chiton, the peplos epiblem has developed a number of variations. Sometimes the skirt was ankle-length, showing just a hint of the chiton underneath. Sometimes the peplos did not go past the knees, and the chiton covered the lower legs. Some

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chlamys her usual dress. The chlamys was a roughly rectangular tissue sample with three straight sides and a fourth concave side. It was worn by draping it around the shoulders, point straight up, and pinning it at the base of the neck so that its folds fell to the knees. The chlamys can also be applied at the back, exposing the wearer's back and buttocks. The two ends of the concave side formed hanging points on both sides and were often compared to wings. After its introduction to Greece, it became the usual dress for knights. It appears on the Panathenaic frieze in the Parthenon in Athens, where young ephebes (young men in military training) carry it while galloping after the procession or preparing to mount their horses. In the Greek city of Sparta, the chlamys became the garment of choice for the Spartans, the military elite that ruled Laconia. It was not adopted by the Romans, but the Romans had several similar military cloaks such as paludamentum, ababola, and sagum. A similar garment seems to have been the trabea worn by members of the Order of Chivalry in Rome when they were paraded on horseback in honor of Castor and Pollux. However, the Chlamys lasted into the Byzantine period. The Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy contains a mosaic of Empress Theodora (AD 527–548) wearing a cloak as part of her imperial regalia. A man wearing a cloak and the hat on his head known as Causia. CREATED BY CECILY EVANS. THE GALE GROUP.

The Athena figures show her with a pleated peplos, which has folds of unequal length, and sometimes the peplos is gathered only at the right shoulder, with the fold folded over the right arm's length to form a sort of short sleeve. It is difficult to distinguish this type of peplos from the Ionian himation. In fact, the same Greek authors used the terms for their clothing in the 4th century BC. Chr. Loser. THE CLAIM. The chlamys was a garment of the non-Greeks of northern Greece, the Thessalians and Macedonians. In fact, along with the petasos or causia (brimmed hat), the chlamys was the national dress of Macedonia. Distinctive garments worn by northern foreigners when depicted on Greek monuments were the chlamys, the kausias, the alopekis (a fox fur hat) and the embades (half-length boots). ). A Macedonian noble marked his position by wearing a purple robe and causia, and Alexander the Great, the Macedonian king who conquered the Persian Empire, made the 92

FUENTES

Ephraim David, "Dressed in Spartan Society", Ancient World 19 (1989): 3-13. Evelyn B. Harrison, "The Dress of the Archaic Greek Korai", in New Perspectives on Ancient Greek Art. ed. Diana Buitron-Oliver (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1991): 217–239. Rolf Hurschmann, "Chlamys", in Der Neue Pauly (Stuttgart/Weimar, Germany: J.B. Metzler, 1997): 1133. —, "Chiton", in Der Neue Pauly (Stuttgart/Weimar, Germany: J.B. Metzler, 1997): 1131 -1132. Marion Sichel, Costume of the Classical World (London, England: Batsford, 1980). David J. Symons, Ancient Greek Costume (London, England: Batsford, 1987). ALSO SEE

Architecture: Greek architecture

THE T O G A NATIONAL COSTUME FROM ROME. The toga was the national dress of the Romans. the Roman people

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they were the gens togata, the "people who wear the toga". The Roman poet Virgil proudly used the term in his epic poem Aeneid to refer to the populus Romanus, i.e. the “Roman people”. Foreigners, non-Roman citizens and Roman exiles were forbidden from using it. However, it appears that the law forbidding non-Romans from wearing the toga was not applied everywhere, as the provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Transalpine Gaul were officially called Gallia togata, i.e. H. "Gaul in which the toga is worn". Toga' – indicating that Romanized provincials sometimes wore the toga even before they were granted citizenship. There was a tradition that the toga came to Rome from Etruria, the region of modern Tuscany in Italy inhabited by people , which the Romans invoked from Etruscans and Greeks called Tyrrhenians, who seem to have been immigrants from Asia Minor around 1000 BC The Roman toga probably began in Latin as a simple piece of woolen cloth worn without undergarments and fastened with a safety pin The name comes from the Latin verb tegere, which means "to cover". The toga was a quilt used to cover a person's body during the day and his bed at night. In the early days both women and men wore it. Roman men even wore it in battle in the early days of the pomegranate. THE CINCTUS GABINO. In some war-related rituals, such as the opening of the Janus Gates, which the Romans opened when going to war, they girded their robes with something called gabinus cinctus. They took the ends of their robes, threw them over her left shoulder, wrapped them under her right arm and around her chest, and turned their robes into clothing that did not hinder their movement. The origin of this strange custom can be explained by the history of the ancient enmity between Rome and the city of Gabii, which dates back to before the expulsion of the last Roman king in 510 BC. dates back to The Romans used the Gabinus cinctus when fighting the Gabii. The 193 centuries or battalions of the ancient Roman citizen army were divided into five classes based on their wealth, with only the first class being able to afford full body armour. A Roman of the lowest rank in those distant times tied his toga around his waist so his arms were free to wield a weapon, and went into battle to fight as best he could. His cloak offered little protection, but it was better than nothing. DEVELOPMENT. Gradually the toga became more elaborate and its use more restricted. Women

A toga as worn in the early 1st century AD.

CRE-

ADOPTION OF CECILY EVANS. THE GALE GROUP.

she replaced it with the stole, a long outer garment that became the conventional attire of a married woman. Soldiers abandoned it for a more comfortable cloak called a sagum. Nevertheless, by the end of the republican period in the first century B.C. C.E., and even into the Imperial period that followed, togas were sometimes surrendered to Roman armies in winter camps. By this time, however, the toga had lost its military role and had become a garment of peace and a symbol of citizenship. In Rome, a commoner was expected to wear his toga in public. Emperor Augustus (reigned from 27 BC to 14 AD) forbade citizens from entering the Roman Forum or the circus unless they wore togas. Outside Rome, however, citizens quickly adopted foreign clothing that could be easily put on and taken off; The toga became so elaborate as it evolved that a Roman needed help putting it on. Also in Rome itself, the Greek fashion became increasingly popular in the first century AD, with the toga being increasingly reserved for official occasions. Women left him early, except for those who were courtesans or found guilty of adultery. the stole

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THE IMPORTANCE OF INTRODUCING THE TOGA:

The toga was the national garment of Roman citizens. In fact, Romans were sometimes referred to simply as "togati" (the "toga-wearing men"), and when dramas about Roman citizens were performed in the theater they were called fabulae togatae, in contrast to dramas involving characters. fabulae palliatae. Roman senators wore togas in public business, as did members of aldermen in other cities of the Roman Empire, even as late as the 4th and 5th centuries AD The following passage from the Roman history of Livy, who lived during the reign of Emperor Augustus , illustrates the importance of wearing the toga in conducting public affairs. In the year 458 BC CE, the Roman Republic faced a potential catastrophe. Rome's enemies, the Aequi, cut off a consular army led by one of the consuls, Lucius Minucius. In this crisis, the Roman Senate decided to appoint Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus as dictator; The dictatorship in Rome was a six-month appointment made only in emergencies when the state was threatened and a strong leader was needed. Cincinnatus had a small farm across the Tiber from Rome and was working on his land when a Senate delegation arrived to invite him to Rome. Before delivering the Senate invitation, the delegation asked Cincinnatus to put on his toga. Cincinnatus accepted the dictatorship, defeated the Equios, and left office after the Crisis, having occupied it for just fifteen days. Here Livy described the meeting of the Senate and the Cincinnatus delegation.

worn by married women was denied to them because it was the sign of the respectable Roman matron, a duly married woman. RIT OF TRANSITION. In many cultures, a young person's transition from childhood to adulthood is marked by what is called a "rite of passage." In Rome, the rite of passage involved changing from the juvenile toga to the male toga. A freeborn Roman youth wore the toga praetexta, a toga with a purple sash woven along the hem of the garment. Underneath he wore a tunic with two woven purple stripes running from the shoulders to the hem, and around his neck was a medallion called a bulla, which could be made of gold, silver, bronze, or even leather. When the young man came of age, he exchanged the toga praetexta for the toga virilis, the men's toga, which was all white, the natural color of wool. In the early days of Rome, well into the second century B.C. A young man gave up the toga praetexta at the age of sixteen. Later, the ceremony took place at the end of the young man's fifteenth birthday. There were exceptions: Emperor Tiberius did not allow the future in 94

Now, for the many people who believe that money is everything in this world, and that rank and ability are inseparable from wealth, I want to draw special attention to the fact that Cincinnatus, the one man on whom Rome pinned all its hopes for survival , he was working at the time on a small, 3-acre farm (now known as Quinctian Meadows) west of the Tiber, just across the road from what is now the shipyard. A search from around town revealed he was tilling the land, perhaps digging a ditch or plowing. Greetings were exchanged and he was invited to don his toga and listen to the instructions of the Senate with prayer for God's blessings on him and his country. This of course surprised him and when he asked if everything was alright he told his wife Racilia to run to the hut and find her cloak. The toga was brought in and he wiped the dirty sweat from his hands and face and put it on; Immediately the envoys of the city greeted him with congratulations, as dictator, invited him to enter Rome and informed him of the terrible danger posed by the army of Minucius. A ship of state was waiting for him on the river, and on the city beach he was met by his three sons, who came to meet him, then by other relatives and friends, and finally by almost all the senators. SOURCE:

Livy, The Early History of Rome. Trans. Aubrey de Selincourt (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1960): 213.

Emperor Caligula adopted the toga virilis until he was twenty, and the future Emperor Nero adopted it when he was fourteen. The toga praetexta was also worn by important state officials, and the fact that it was also worn by children was perhaps a recognition of both the vulnerability and the importance of childhood. Children were as important to the future of the state as the men who held prestigious positions. The ceremony, in which a young man presents the toga praetexta, used to take place on March 16 during the feast of Bacchus known as Liberalia. The night before, the boy had shed his praetexta toga and put on a white robe to sleep; This tunic was known as the straight tunic (the "straight tunic"), so called because it was woven on the ancient vertical loom. The ceremony began the next morning with a sacrifice made to the Lares, the household gods of the family. The boy dedicated his toga praetexta and thus also his bulla, the reliquary with the amulet or amulet that he wore around his neck as a child to ward off bad influences and to protect him in his vulnerable childhood years, to the Lares. It was

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more like a modern good luck charm, except that Roman society really believed in the "evil eye" and a variety of evil influences, so charming signs to ward them off were more important than good luck charms in modern times. It also identified the user as the child of a freeborn Roman citizen. The young man then put on his new robe. It was the pure coat, which did not mean that it was "pure", but that it was undyed, i.e. it was the natural color of the wool. That was a "men's toga", the so-called men's toga. That meant he was a grown man now. His family and friends, in his new male toga, escorted him to the forum where he was introduced to the Roman people, the populus Romanus, who would henceforth count him as one of their members. The young man then went to the Capitoline Hill and made offerings in the Temple of Jupiter to the state gods, the divine triad Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva to take an interest in public affairs and to learn from his elders how to conduct affairs of state. He crossed the line between vulnerable youth and manhood. TOGAS FOR GIRLS. Girls also wore the praetexta toga, but changed it around the age of twelve upon reaching puberty. From then until marriage, girls wore a palla, or mantle. A girl over twelve is shown with a palla on the southern relief of the "Altar of Peace" in Rome, dated 13 BC. B.C. Was commissioned by the Roman Senate. it can still be reconstructed in modern Rome on the banks of the Tiber. Unlike the toga, it was a rectangular piece of cloth, but on the "Altar of Peace" it is draped over the girl's body so much like a toga that it could be mistaken for one, except for its square bottom edge is indicated by the ROW SHAPE given. The toga was simply a piece of cloth that was folded and wrapped around the body. In early Roman times, when cloth was a piece of homemade wool, it probably kept the shape it was when it came off the loom: rectangular. Evidence from ancient authors, though sparse, indicates that the toga was a semicircular piece of cloth with a straight edge, and when a lilac band was woven along the edge, a wide (latus clavus) for senators and a narrow (angustus clavus) for members of the riding class; it could only have been woven along the straight edge. There have been many modern attempts to reproduce the style of toga on the monuments, and it seems likely that it was not a piece of cloth, which was a true semicircle, but rather half an ellipse with a straight edge that wide was. just enough for the purple stripes to be woven parallel to it. although conservative

Imperial Procession (detail from Ara Pacis Augustae), showing members of the imperial family in procession at the dedication of this altar commemorating the pacification of Spain and Gaul by Emperor Augustus, begun 13, dedicated 9 BC. © ARALDO DE LUCA/CORBIS. REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION.

Romans left, toga styles changed over time; The toga of the end of the empire generally resembled the toga of the Roman Republic, but it was not the same garment. However, in the late Empire, masons made toga-clad figures for the official statues of emperors and officials erected throughout the Empire. HOW THE TOGA WAS WORN. The toga of Republican Rome, in its simplest form, was thrown over the left shoulder, passed down the back and under the right arm, and then thrown back over the left shoulder, creating a slanting fold across the chest. The right shoulder and arm were left bare, but not bare, as a man would wear a tunic under his toga. There is a statue in the Archaeological Museum in Florence, Italy known as Il Arringatore (The Speaker) showing the type of toga that may have been used in the 2nd or early 1st century BC. was worn. The skirt does not reach the feet and there is some kind of embroidery at the bottom. The toga that Roman politicians Cicero or Julius Caesar might have worn in the last days of the Roman Republic,

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THE LACERN. Since the toga offered little protection from the elements, the Romans adopted a hooded wool outer layer popular with the military: the lacerna. It was worn over the toga and opened at one side, leaving the arms free. The Romans fastened it to the right shoulder with a brooch or buckle so it could be thrown back over the shoulder. It was dark in color when used as a military cloak, but when adopted as civilian wear it was usually made in light colors and lighter fabrics, particularly for upper-class men and women. When it was cold, toga spectators in the amphitheater or theater needed their shoelaces to keep warm.

Man in short Republican toga, c. 100 B.C. Chr

CREATED BY CE

Zilia Evans. THE GALE GROUP.

however, it covered both shoulders. Under Roman emperors, togas with carefully arranged folds became elaborate. The Imperial period toga had two additional features: a fold of fabric called the breast, which crossed diagonally across the chest, and a series of drapes called the umbo, which were a type of decorative knot made by lifting the folds up the left side was made. to hold the curtains together. Clothing so elaborate could not be easily put on and taken off. The correct arrangement of the folds of the toga was a sign of elegance, and there were slaves trained to perform this task, called vestiplici if they were male slaves, or vestiplice if they were female. If a Roman magistrate was to officiate at a ceremony in Imperial Rome where a toga was to be worn, his slaves might have had to sit down the night before to prepare the folds and folds by pinching them together with tongs. The bust in particular required attention, as in some depictions of toga-clad figures it hangs loosely but gracefully across the chest, almost touching the floor. The toga, which began as a practical garment, ended up as elaborate ceremonial attire. 96

TYPES OF TOGAS. The tunics were made of wool, a light wool fabric for summer and a thicker one for winter. When not dyed they retained the natural color of the wool, which was off-white, although many of the togas worn in Rome, for lack of good washing, must have been a rather dirty grey. It was important for a commoner running for office to have a pure white toga, and he used chalk to give his toga the required colour; hence the Latin word for "candidate" (candidatus) comes from the word for "aim" (candidus). The praetexta toga worn by children and state officials had a purple border. As well as the robes worn by senators and men of the equestrian order. Senators had a broad purple fringe (latus clavis or "laticlave") to denote their status, while men of the equestrian order, called equites or "knights", whose required minimum income was less than half that of a senator, had a narrow fringe. stripes. The horsemen of the second century B.C. they were possessions that avoided a career in politics; They incorporated into their ranks businessmen and tax collectors, i.e. private businessmen who had contracts with the government to collect taxes. The Flamen Dialis and Flamen Martialis, the high priests of Jupiter and Mars, and the augurs, the priestly officials who received patronage, wore a variety of striped toga known as trabea, but it is not clear how the stripes were arranged were. A toga called a trabea was also worn by men of the equestrian order who paraded on horseback at the festival of Castor and Pollux (the legendary founders of Rome) to commemorate the semi-mythical Battle of Lake Regillus. However, its trabea appears to have been a short coat, like the Greek chlamys. It was the characteristic costume of knights, for when the Roman theaters presented comedies in which the characters were citizens of the knightly order, they were referred to as ediae trabeatae, comedies in which the actors wore trabeae. Dark robes were worn as a sign of mourning. This type of toga was known as a toga

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Pulla: the "dark cloak". A pullum was a dark gray colored garment. A toga, known as a toga picta or trabea triumphalis, was decorated with patterns and must have required great skill in weaving; It was used in the period of the Roman Republic by generals returning from a victorious campaign and granted the right to celebrate a triumph. The triumphant general led his booty and captives through the streets of Rome, eventually ascending the Via Sacra (Via Sacra) through the Roman Forum to the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. Behind the procession came the general himself in a chariot, clad in a Pictish toga. In fact, the general had no such cloak, since such cloaks were kept among Jupiter's treasures and were only brought on special occasions. Under the Roman Empire, however, triumphs were reserved for the emperor, and the first emperor, Augustus, made the toga picta his official attire. THE END OF THE TOGA. Juvenal, the Roman satirist probably writing in the first quarter of the second century AD, wrote in his third satire that in most of Italy no man was seen wearing a toga until the day of his death, when he was in one was laid. When the country's theaters were showing performances on holidays, everyone, including the judges, wore a simple white robe. However, the toga remained the proper ceremonial garment until the 4th century AD, as evidenced by developments in Roman sculpture. A relief sculpture of Marcus Aurelius, emperor from AD 161 to 180, reused on the Arch of Constantine in Rome, shows a figure in a short toga, reaching only to the knees; Another panel by the same emperor, now in the Museo Conservatori in Rome, shows a person in a similar short toga playing a reed flute known as an aulos. It has been suggested that this short robe was the robe of the common Roman, but the absence of such figures in art makes it difficult to draw a conclusion. Marcus Aurelius' predecessor, Hadrian, appears on a statue wearing a toga resembling a Greek himation. Hadrian was a lover of Greek culture, which might explain his Greek-style toga, but the fad didn't last long. In the 3rd century AD a new style was developed with a broad pleat running under the right arm across the chest and over the left shoulder giving the appearance of a baldric or sash running diagonally across the chest. This was the "banded robe" and a man needed the help of a servant to put it on. It wasn't a costume for everyday wear. Sometimes it looks like the straps have been held in place with hidden stitching. Difficult as it is to wear, the banded toga remained popular as ceremonial attire well into the fourth century. A statue of a toga-clad consul in the Capitol dates from the 5th century

A man dressed in a lacerna (soldier's coat).

CREATED BY CECILY

EVANS. THE GALE GROUP.

Museum of Rome shows the final stages of the development of the toga. The statue dates to around AD 400 and depicts a man wearing a short-sleeved robe over a long-sleeved robe. He wears a toga with a long bust, which the judge had to hold with his left arm so that it doesn't drag across the floor. This was clearly a purely ceremonial garment as it did not allow the wearer to move freely. As the cloak reached the end of its long history, it was no longer suitable for physical exercise. However, it wasn't without problems. It was fashioned into the clothing of a Roman Catholic priest known as a stole, not to be confused with the clothing worn by a married Roman woman of the same name. SOURCES

F. Courby, "Toga", in Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Ed Charles Victor Daremberg and Edmond Saglio (Paris: Hachette, 1877; reprint, Graz: Academic Drawing and Publishing House, 1962): 347–353.

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THE COSTUME OF THE EMPEROR AUGUST INTRODUCTION:

Known as John the Lydian, the author lived during the reign of Emperor Justinian (527-565 AD) and worked in the imperial bureaucracy in Constantinople for forty years. Three of his works survive, the most famous of which are entitled De Magistratibus (On Offices of State), De Ostentis (On Omens) and De Mensibus (On Months), which provide information on the ancient Roman religious calendar and the various festivals they held , collected . had. Appointments set by the calendar. In his work On State Offices he describes the dress of various officials, and the following passage describes the dress of Emperor Augustus. John lived five centuries after Augustus' death, and no doubt confused the dress of Augustus to some extent with that of later emperors; Augustus' robe, for example, was not silk, but silk was regularly used in the clothing of later emperors, and jeweled robes were a feature of imperial dress in the late Roman Empire. John correctly reports that Augustus was the high priest of Rome (pontifex maximus) and died in 12 B.C. became high priest. after the death of the previous holder and all his successors until Emperor Gratian (AD 367–383) took office after him. The word pontifex means 'bridge builder' - John is right about that - and the reason for this is that when Rome was still pagan it was believed that each river had its own divine spirit that would resent a priest's failure. to perform the prescribed rites when she was under the yoke of a bridge that connected her two banks.

In times of peace he [Augustus] used to wear the robe of a high priest - the name means high priest associated with bridges - purple to the feet, priestly, adorned with gold, and a robe of likewise

CF Ross, „Die Rekonstruktion der späteren Toga“, American Journal of Archaeology 15 (1911): 24–31. Shelley Stone, „The Toga: From National Costume to Ceremonial“, in The World of Roman Costume. Ed. Judith Sebesta und Larissa Bonfante (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994): 13–45. Lillian W. Wilson, The Roman Toga (Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1924).

THE TEXTILES OF THE ROMAN WORLD

GREEK

THERE. Sheep were multipurpose animals in the Greco-Roman world. They provided sheepskins, which the farmers used for coats, wool for fabrics, lamb for supper, and wool for clothing.

Purple that had gold folds at the ends. I covered my head for the reasons I gave in the essay On the Months I Wrote. For wars he wore paludamenta, scarlet cloaks of double thickness, woven of raw silk of the highest quality, fastened at the shoulders with a jeweled gold clasp. We call it a primer like the Italians, but it's still spoken of in the palace today, with a kind of special word, like a cornucopia. At parties he wore limbo: it is a purple cloak that covers the body down to the feet with a sinuous pattern; on the shoulders a light patch of tabulament - that is, fabric in the form of piping - and a paragauda embroidered with the golden letter gamma [that is, a tunic embroidered with figures like the Greek letter "gamma". ] Starting from the edge of the feet and the bottom of the garment, these small figures decorate the tunic with gold on either side to form a gamma letter. In the Senate he (of course) wore a purple robe, and at the edge of the hem near the wearer it was decorated with squares edged with pure gold. Court officials call these squares Segmenta, meaning "gold". embroidered on the hem,” while the man in the street asks about such embroideries on individuals’ coats. This coat is called bracteolate (overlaid with gold plates), gemose (encrusted with precious stones), and lanceolate (adorned with embroidered spearheads). He also wore the rest of the Emperor's official attire, which I summarized in a lengthy description as excessive. ... SOURCE: John the Lydian, De Magistratibus, in Bureaucracy in Traditional Society: Roman-Byzantine Bureaucracies from the Inside. Trans. by T.F. Carney (Lawrence, Kansas: Coronado Press, 1971): 44. Text modified by James Allan Evans.

complement the Greek diet and milk for cheese making. In ancient Greece and Rome, wool cloth had the added benefit of being easily dyed, unlike linen. In addition, wool in its natural state came in different colors depending on the breed of sheep. Latin had words to describe the different shades: albus meant "white", niger "dark brown" or "black", coracinus "jet black" and fuscus "brown with a red tinge". There was also a wool color called pullus, which came from sheep from southern Italy and also from Liguria, a region in the north-west of the peninsula. Pullus was obviously brownish-black and a color associated with mourning. In the Po Valley of northern Italy, a breed of sheep evolved that produced fine white wool that could be woven into a net-like fabric. However, if a man or woman prefers an artificial color, there it is

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LINEN MANUFACTURE INTRODUCTION:

The natural history of Pliny the Elder, who died when Mount Vesuvius erupted in AD 79, is the main source of information on how flax yarn was made from flax. In the section of his natural history from which this excerpt is taken, Pliny discussed various fabrics made from plants, including esparto grass and, surprisingly, asbestos, which he believed to be a plant found in the deserts of Egypt. Pliny thought the best "linen" was made from it, but closely followed by fabrics made from fine linen grown in Elis, Greece. The following section describes the processing of flax to obtain the flax fiber.

With us, the maturity of the flax is determined by two signs, the swelling of the seed or its yellowing. It is then harvested and tied into small, handful-sized bundles, one day with the roots upwards and then another five days with the bundle heads upwards to dry in the sun. one to the other so that the seed ends up in the middle. Flaxseed is a powerful medicine; It is also popular in a rustic porridge with an extremely sweet taste, made in Italy north of the Po but long gone

there was a wide range of dyes; According to legend, Numa, the second king of Rome after Romulus, founded the dyers' guild in Rome. The legend is unlikely to be true, but the guild certainly had an ancient history. LINEN. Linen was made from the domesticated flax plant, which evolved early in the Mediterranean from wild flax for its fiber and the oil in its seeds. Linen was used in the Bronze Age before 1100 BC. used. C., both in the Minoan period on Crete and in the Mycenaean period on the mainland. Tablets found in the so-called "Palace of Nestor" at Pylos, Greece show that flax was cultivated in the south-west Peloponnese before 1200 BC. was cultivated. C., and in the later Classic period Elis in the north-west of the Peloponnese was known for its fine linen. In the Hellenistic period after Alexander the Great, Egypt produced flax with great prestige, but by the Roman period the main centers of production had shifted to Syria and Palestine. Flax from the Po Valley enjoyed a good reputation in the west, as did flax from the coastal areas of south-eastern Spain. Flax was not only used for clothing, but also for fishing nets, ship sails and theater awnings.

Time is only used for sacrifices. When the wheat is harvested, the stalks of flax are dipped in water heated in the sun and a weight is placed on them to hold them down, as flax floats so easily. Shedding of the outer layer is a sign that they are completely soaked and they are dried again in the sun, turned face down as before and, when completely dry, hammered into a stone with a mallet. The part that was closest to the skin is called a tow: it is a lower quality linen and usually better suited for lamp wicks; but this too is combed with iron spikes until the entire outer skin is shaved off. The pith has varying degrees of whiteness and softness, and the discarded skin is useful for heating stoves and ovens. There is an art to combing and dividing the flax; it is a fair amount for fifteen... [phrasing is wrong here]...to be deducted from the weight of fifty pound packages; and spinning flax is a decent occupation even for men. It is then polished a second time on the wire after being soaked in water and repeatedly pounded against a stone and woven into cloth and then clubbed again as it is always better for a rough treatment. SOURCE: Pliny, Natural History. Books XVII-XIX. volume V. Trans. H. Rackham (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1950): 431, 433.

amphitheaters that sheltered spectators from the sun; Awnings were also made out of cotton as they dried quickly, or a half-cotton half-linen fabric was woven to be used as canopies. COTTON. Cotton was an imported fabric. It first appeared in India, where it has been found at archaeological sites in the Indus Valley dating to the early 2nd millennium BC. appeared. In the Hellenistic period, from the 3rd to the 1st century B.C. BC, it spread to Upper Egypt, Nubia and Ethiopia, apparently along the trade route between East Africa and India. Greek and Roman authors seemed to believe that cotton was grown on trees; the Roman poet Virgil, for example, refers to the cotton plants of Nubia in his Georgics. This was probably not a mistake, as many modern scholars believe. Cotton is now grown on a shrub with the botanical name Gossipium herbaceum, but a cotton tree, Gossipium arboretum, also exists and may have been the source of the cotton fiber known to the Greeks and Romans. SILK. Real silk comes from the domesticated silkworm, which extracts a silk fiber to make its cocoon. Under Emperor Justinian (527-565

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the imperial court. The following passage is from the biographer of the early Caesars, Suetonius.

THE UNIQUE DRESS OF THE EMPEROR GAY CALIGULA INTRODUCTION:

Gaius Caligula, great-grandson of Emperor Augustus, became emperor in AD 37, largely because of his distinguished lineage. In his four years as emperor he proved a terrible ruler and was apparently mentally handicapped; He was killed before he could harm the Empire. His general appearance was unfortunate: he was tall, of poor build, thin legs and neck, and his body was very hairy except for his head, which was almost completely bald. Instead of the simple dress favored by his two predecessors as emperors, Augustus and Tiberius, Caligula introduced elaborate styles that were seen as borrowed from the East and associated in Roman thought with divine kingship. Indeed, it is argued that Caligula's madness had method; he tried to introduce absolute monarchy with all the bells and whistles, following the example of royal courts like Cleopatra's in Egypt. Three centuries later, Caligula's clothing would not have been considered particularly outlandish

CE)

Silkworm eggs were smuggled into the Roman Empire and became the basis of the Byzantine silk industry. Before this development, all silk was imported. Silk was discovered in Europe before Emperor Augustus, but silk was rare before the Augustan period when trade with India opened up. It was a luxurious fabric; Sometimes samples of silk were unfurled and the silk thread woven with fine linen to double the life and reduce the price. Emperor Caligula (AD 37–41) wore a silk robe, and Emperor Elagabalus (AD 218–222) insisted on having a new silk robe every day. The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, a Greek writing in Latin in the late 4th century AD, commented that the use of silk, once restricted to the imperial court, was widespread among upper-class Romans. When the Visigoth chief Alaric demanded a ransom for Rome in 408 AD, he demanded, among other things, 4,000 silk cloaks for his men. The main trade route that carried silk to the Mediterranean markets took them from China to Indian ports, where Persian merchants bought them, took them to the tip of the Persian Gulf, and then transported them in caravans to the Empire's ports of entry on the Euphrates. Flow. Merchanting made Persia rich, which made the Roman imperial government unhappy and tried to develop alternative routes. The problem was not solved until the Byzantine Empire developed its own silk industry.

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Caligula paid no attention to traditional or current fashions in his clothing; ignoring male conventions and even human decency. She often appeared in public wearing an embroidered and jeweled cape, a long-sleeved tunic, and bracelets; or in silk (which the law forbade men), or even in a woman's tunic; and he was shod sometimes in slippers, sometimes in boots, sometimes in military boots, sometimes in ladies' shoes. Occasionally he wore a golden beard and carried in his hand Jupiter's thunderbolt, Neptune's trident or Mercury's staff entwined with serpents. He even dressed as Venus and wore the uniform of a triumphant general long before his expedition, often adorned with the breastplate he had stolen from the tomb of Alexander the Great in Alexandria. SOURCE:

Suetonius, "Cayo Caligula," in The Twelve Caesars. Trans. Robert Graves (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1957): 175.

COAN SILK. Not all silk in the Greek world came from China. On the island of Kos, most famous for the great physician Hippocrates of Kos who established a medical school there, there was a thriving silk industry using silk from the cocoon of a local moth. The main ancient sources of information on this industry are Aristotle and Pliny the Elder, who agree that the technique for extracting the silk fiber from the cocoon of this moth was discovered by a woman named Pamphilus. Coan silk was woven by both men and women, which was unusual in Greece where weaving was considered a women's occupation. But the output of the Coan silk industry cannot have been large, as Cos is a small island and its silk was probably inferior to Chinese silk. China filled a demand that Cos couldn't. SEW. In ancient Greece, women wove. The Greek historian Herodotus, who explored Egypt in the mid-5th century B.C. He noted that men worked at looms in Egypt and commented on the difference between Egyptian and Greek customs. In Greece, the housewife was responsible for weaving the house clothes. The Greek historian Xenophon commented on the importance of the wife's duty to weave in his treatise on household management, Oeconomicus. In this work he described a dialogue between his mentor Socrates and the Athenian sage

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Isomachus, where Isomachus stressed the importance of his young wife being the pre-eminent weaver in the house. However, not everything was knitted at home. Fine fabrics in particular required professional weaving, and specialized companies existed in classical Athens from the late 5th century BC. There is evidence of one establishment specializing in chlamys (short robes) and another specializing in chlanis, which were an upper-body robe like the chlaina but more finely woven. In Italy, the fine white wool fabric made in the north, in the Po Valley, required skilled weaving, and the factories set up there used highly skilled slaves to weave. From the 1st century AD, wealthy women had more to do with leisure than looms with their slaves, although the Empress Livia, Augustus' third and last wife, attempted to set an example of ancient virtue. stimulated by the work on the loom. However, in the cities of the Roman Empire, as early as the time of Augustus, there were shops selling ready-made clothing for both free men and slaves. THE ORIGIN OF THE TISSUE. Despite evidence of ready-made clothing, the vast majority of people in ancient Greece and Rome had to make not only their own clothes but also their own yarns and fabrics. The fabric making process was long and tedious. After shearing the sheep in the spring, the women would wash the wool and separate the tangled fibers with their fingers. Then they carded it, separated the fibers with a comb and rubbed it in a mass of burlap or combed wool, knelt on a sort of terracotta cushion and put their feet on a stool called an onos or donkey. At this point they dyed the wool unless the finished fabric was the natural color of the wool. So wool had to be spun, but the spinning wheel had not yet been invented; The spinner, known as a spinster, used a distaff and spindle to spin the wool. The spinster wrapped the rope around the distaff, took off a piece, and fastened it to the spindle she held in her left hand. Attached to the underside of the spindle was a weight called the spindle spiral. He held the length of thread taut and as soon as the spindle began to turn, he twisted the thread into a line. The spinner continued to thread the distaff up the increasing length of thread until the spindle reached the bottom. Then he wound the thread onto the spindle and the process began again. After spinning a whole ball of yarn, she took it off the spindle and placed it in the yarn basket. He

INTRODUCTION OF COAN SILK:

Chinese silk was highly prized but had to be imported at great expense until the reign of Emperor Justinian (527-565 AD) when silkworm eggs were smuggled into the Byzantine Empire, and white mulberry (Morus alba), the silkworm food crop – was introduced around the same time. However, on the island of Kos, there was a caterpillar whose cocoon could be disintegrated to produce a silk thread. Kos silk was famous for its lightness and transparency, although production must have been small. The following passage is from Aristotle's Historia Animalium (Research Notes on Living Things). Pliny the Elder also describes the manufacture of coan silk in his Natural History, and both authors attribute the invention to a woman named Pamphila, daughter of Plataeus. It has also been suggested that coan silk was known as early as the Minoan period.

From a large worm in particular, which has similar horns and differs from worms in general in other respects, the metamorphosis of the worm first gives rise to a caterpillar, then the cocoon, then the Nezidalus; and the creature goes through all these transformations in six months. A class of women unwind and unwind the cocoons of these creatures, and then weave a cloth from the threads thus unwound; A Choan woman named Pánfila, daughter of Plateo, is credited with first inventing this fabric. SOURCE:

Aristotle, Historia Animalium, Book V. Vol. IV of the Works of Aristotle. Trans. D'arcy Wentworth Thompson (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1910): 551b.

The strength and texture of the thread depended on the speed of the spindle. Once the thread was created, it could be woven on a loom. In ancient Greece there were two types of looms. One was a small, easily transportable loom used to make relatively narrow sashes and patterns, and the weaver could work on it while seated. The other was the big old vertical loom used to weave the fabric patterns that became tunics or cloaks. This was the vertical loom on which the straight Roman tunic was woven, which a young man wore when he came of age and donned the "man's toga" (toga virilis). The warp threads hung from the top of the loom and were held taut by the loom weights. The weavers sang as they worked. Homer in the Odyssey

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He described the nymph Calypso, who held Odysseus captive until the gods commanded her to let him return to Ithaca, as a weaver singing at her loom. The witch Circe from the same literary work also sang while weaving. However, the monotony of working at the loom did not necessarily lead to happy songs. Weaving was hard work and it is more than likely that the slave women who worked the loom sang sad songs. DIE CLOTH. In 1972, a kore, a statue of a fully clothed woman, and a kouros, a nude male figure, were unearthed in a cemetery near Merenda, on the outskirts of Athens. At the base of the Kore statue was an inscription that read: "Tomb of Phrasikleia. They will always call me Kore. The gods gave me this name instead of marriage. Phrasikleia had died before her marriage and was therefore always referred to as a virgin (kore), never as a married woman. More notable than this inscription, however, was the original painting that survived on the statue. Art historians knew that the Greeks painted their statues, but those that survive have the paint gone or almost gone. The painting Phrasikleia chiton shows swastikas, then considered lucky symbols, and rosettes on the front and four-pointed stars and various flowers on the back. The predominant colors are red, black and yellow. This was clearly a brightly patterned wedding dress for a wedding that never happened. There was a time when it was thought that Greek weavers could not make patterned fabrics with their warp looms; When Greek authors mentioned decorated tunics, scholars assumed that this meant they were embroidered: the decoration had been sewn on after the fabric had been woven. But the Phrasikleia chiton shows that they were quite capable of producing fabrics with colorful designs. The peplos that the Athenians offered to Athena at each festival of the Great Panathenaia must have been patterned fabrics of the same kind, and Athens was not the only place that regularly presented a new dress to its patron goddess. At Elis in the north-west of the Peloponnese, Hera, the patron goddess of the state, was presented with a peplos worked by sixteen women at regular intervals. Homer's Iliad relates that Helen of Troy wove a battle scene in color in her spare time. Helen was no different from other Greek housewives in this respect: she was also skilled at the loom. DYE. Excavations at a Roman fort at Vindolanda, near Hadrian's Wall in Britain, have recovered several textile fragments and fifty of these have been analysed. Analysis showed that eight of them were stained and a 102 red dye was used in all cases.

Madder root (Rubia tinctorum). The Romans had several dyes, the strongest red being one of the cheapest. Among the expensive dyes were various shades of purple made from murex shellfish. A cheaper fake purple could be obtained by combining the darker red in the right proportions with indigo imported from India. Coccinus, a brilliant scarlet from Kermes, a cochineal, was in great demand as a refined dye. It originated in Asia, but Spain has also developed a lucrative kermes industry. Other shades were a deep green with a blue tinge (Prasinus), a very bright red (Russeus) and a dark blue (Venetus). However, dyes were of little use without mordants to fix the colors. Ancient mordants included alum made from wood ash or even human urine, and soda ash or soda ash extracted from soda pits in Egypt. To fix the color, the dyers soaked the wool in mordant, placed it in the dye vat, and heated it. SOURCES

John Beckwith, "Textile Fragments of Classical Antiquity", Illustrated London News 224 (1954): 114–15. John Ferguson, "China y Rome," The Rise and Fall of the Roman World, II–9–2. ed. Hildegard Temporini and Wolfgang Haase (Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1978): 581–603. Reinhold Meyer, A History of Purple as a Status Symbol in Antiquity (Brussels, Belgium: Collection Latomus 116, 1970). Judith Lynn Sebesta, "Tunica Ralla, Tunica Spissa: The Colors and Fabrics of Roman Costume", in The World of Roman Costume. Ed. Judith Lynn Sebesta and Larissa Bonfante (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994): 65-76. Beate Wagner-Hasel, "The Graces and Color Weaving" and Women's Clothing in the Ancient Greek World. ed. Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones (London, England: Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales, 2002): 17–32. Jonathan P. Wild, “Flax,” in the Oxford Classical Dictionary. 3rd Ed. Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999):863.

DRESS TO IMPRESS AND ROME

GREECE

COLOR IN GREEK AND ROMAN CLOTHING. A visitor to Ancient Greece or Rome would be struck by the bright colors of the clothing worn by the people, especially women. It is at this point that surviving Greek and Roman art tends to paint a false picture. The marble statues were originally painted

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with wax-based paints, but it is very rare today to find a statue with traces of the original paints. The bronze statues have almost all long since disappeared and were melted down in the Middle Ages because of their metal. Images of Greek vases from the 6th and 5th centuries BC. BC, when black- and red-figure vases were fashionable in Athens, shows changes in fashion, but the vase painter was limited by the colors of his medium. In fact, Greek and Roman clothing was far more colorful than most people realize. Weavers were able to create fabrics with intricate designs. Presented to the goddess Athena every four years at the festival of the Great Panathenaea, the peplos were a masterpiece of design. It was woven by the women of Athens in a public building in the city where space was reserved for the loom, and the style of the garment did not change, but there was room for innovation in the pattern of the fabric. The Greeks of the East. The Greeks always viewed the fashions of the East, especially Persia, with admiration mixed with disapproval and contempt. On the one hand, the lavish fashions associated with Persia suggested a soft and effeminate life; Greek admiration for the muscular naked body was not found in Persia. On the other hand, oriental fashion was extremely attractive to those who wanted to use their clothing to signal their wealth and cosmopolitan culture. Eastern Greece, the Greek foundations in Asia Minor and Cyprus, has always been a form of contact with the civilizations of the East. The collapse of Mycenaean civilization was followed by a period of migration, when three waves of immigrants from Greece founded cities on the coast of Asia Minor and the islands of the Dodecanese. The most important of these new foundations were made by Greeks speaking the Ionian dialect, hence Eastern Greeks are often referred to as "Ionians", although there were also Aeolian and Doric foundations made by Greeks whose dialects were Aeolian or Dorian. These Ionian cities stood side by side with the Lydian Empire, and the last Lydian king, Croesus, subdued those on the mainland while cities on nearby islands were protected by his fleets. 546 BC C.E. Croesus, in turn, fell victim to a new empire builder, Cyrus, the founder of the Persian Empire. The Ionian cities that had belonged to the Lydian Empire fell under Persian control. Persia did not like the Greek cities on the coast of Asia Minor. Gradually he took possession of the cities of the islands off the coast, and from Asia he moved to Europe and about the year 512 BC. controlled the region north of the Aegean. However, Persia's rule was relatively easy. Ionian culture continued as before and Ionian fashion influenced by Lydia

ATHENSIAN FASHION LAUNCH TUCIDIDES:

The Athenian historian Thucydides, who lived in the late 5th century B.C. Written his History of the Peloponnesian War in 1900 BC, he devoted a section of his introduction to the events unfolding in Greece in the Archaic Period (700-480 BC) and earlier, and he notes this departure from the fashion established in Greek clothes appeared. He claims the Athenians took the lead. It is more likely that it was the Ionian cities that took the lead, but the evidence that has survived does not allow us to confidently disagree with Thucydides.

The Athenians were the first to abandon the custom of carrying arms and embrace a more relaxed and luxurious way of life. Indeed, the older men of wealthy families, who had such luxurious tastes, have lately stopped wearing linen underwear [chitons] and tying their hair behind their heads in a knot secured with a brooch of golden locusts : The same fashions have been extended to your family . in Ionia, and there he remained for some time among the elders. It was the Spartans who began to dress simply and in accordance with our modern tastes, and the wealthy led lives that resembled the lives of the common people as closely as possible. They were also the first to play naked, stripping openly and rubbing themselves with olive oil after practice. In ancient times, athletes wore loin protectors even at the Olympic Games, and in fact the practice didn't exist that many years ago. Even today, many foreigners, especially in Asia, use these thongs for boxing and wrestling matches. Indeed, a number of other instances can be pointed out where the customs of the ancient Hellenic world are very similar to the customs of contemporary foreigners. SOURCE:

Thucydides, "Introduction," in History of the Peloponnesian War. Trans. Rex Warner (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1954): 38-39.

and later by Persia they were elaborated and ornamented. Ionia became a channel for the Persian style to reach Greece, particularly Athens, which the Ionians considered their mother city. In the first two decades of the 5th century B.C. CE Persia attempted to conquer Greece, resulting in Persia's defeat and withdrawal from the Aegean. The elaborate fashions of the East fell out of fashion in Athens

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NEW FASHION FROM PERSIA INTRODUCTION:

During the last quarter of the fifth century B.C. By 1000 BC, Persian fashion was in full swing in Athens, though not without the usual clash between old and new styles, reflecting the clash between old traditions and new customs. In his play The Wasps (performed 422 BC), Aristophanes highlights the two conflicts in an exchange between a son and his father, in which the son Anticleon attempts to persuade his father Procleon to change his brown cloak. for the much more sophisticated styles of Persia, in this case a Kaunake or a Persis. The clothing worn by the two men (like their names) in this case also reflects their political beliefs; Cleon was a political leader greatly hated by the rich and fashionable Athenians, but he was supported by the masses.

Procleon: What should I do? Anticleon: Take off that old tattered cloak and throw that dress over your shoulders. Procleon: How nice to have children and raise them when they can only try to smother you! Anticleon: Come on, go and don't talk so much. Procleon: In the name of all the gods, what is that terrible thing? Anticleon: It is a Persian dress: some call it a high waist. Procleon: I thought it must be one of those wild goatskin things. Anticleon: You would. If you had ever been to Sardis you would know what it was; but it doesn't seem. Procleon: Certainly not. Looks like one of Morychus' fancy wraps to me. Anticleon: No, they are woven in Ecbatana. Procleon: Of what? calluses? Anticleon: Seriously, you're hopeless! Don't you realize that this is an extremely expensive Persian fabric? Well, at least thirty kilos of wool must have been used to make it. SOURCE: Aristophanes, The Wasps. Trans. David Barrett (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1964): 80-81.

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He opted for a more sober and austere look, although older, conservative men continued to wear Ionian chitons with their many pleats and styled their hair with locust-shaped clips. Ionia gained its independence from Persia after the disaster of Xerxes in Greece, but later fell under the rule of Athens. Ionia had a reputation for being a place where life was quiet and simple, and the scientific view of the time held that a quiet life produced weak, muscular men who did not do well on the battlefield. Hard life made people hard, and according to the Greeks it was the stamina of their foot soldiers and the free men who rowed their warships that ensured their victory over Persia. Simple clothing and endurance went hand in hand. The fact that Ionia gained her freedom from Persia only to lose it to the Athenian Empire seemed to prove that Ionia, with her love of Persian jewelry, was unable to defend her freedom. However, the backlash against Persian fashion did not last. Active warfare between the Athenian Empire and Persia ended in 450 BC. C. and peaceful contacts between Athens and Persia resumed. PERSIAN FASHION IN ATHENS. In the last quarter of the fifth century, the Athenians again showed their fondness for Persian styles. New clothing items appear with revealing names. The fine wool coat called Syrian must have been inspired by Syrian fashion. These coats may even have been imported from Syria. There was a type of women's shoe called Persikai. One of Plato's dialogues refers to wealthy people wearing "Persian girdles"; The dialogue is fictional, but Plato imagines it before 415 BC. took place. C., and it is likely that some wealthy Athenians at the time wore expensive belts, probably imported from Persia. Another garment from the late 5th century B.C. They were the Kaunakes, also known as Persis, a name that betrays their lineage. It appears to have been a heavy cloak with small tufts of wool. Sleeved chitons also appear, another Persian innovation. The vase paintings show examples of Chitoniskos Cheiridotos, d. H. the short-sleeved chiton worn over a long chiton. The short chiton could have fringes at the bottom, and fringes were considered Lydian, or at least Oriental. Another Persian garment adopted by the Greeks was the kandys, a sleeved robe dyed purple and buttoned at the shoulders. The porters wore their kandys to keep their arms warm, although the sleeves were too long for practicality and were sewn on at the end. At the Persian court, these sleeves served to protect the king from assassination, as men could not wield a murderous knife with their arms encased in the long sleeves of their kandys.

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THE SYMBOLISM OF THE MANGO. Mangoes were nothing new in ancient Greece. Musicians wore long-sleeved robes when performing at public festivals, but the musicians' sumptuous attire was not everyday wear. The police officers who patrolled the streets of Athens also wore tunics and trousers with sleeves, but these officers were actually state-owned Scythian slaves and wore their native clothing. Sleeves were considered a whimsical hallmark of Persian fashion but were accepted when the carved frieze on the Parthenon in Athens (carved 430 BC) shows some of the young knights in the parade wearing short sleeved chitons. It seems that some wealthy young Athenians have adopted the latest Persian fashions. However, by the time mangoes reached Rome, they were considered effeminate. A passage from Virgil's epic Aeneid shows the prevailing attitude of the Romans towards this fashion. In the passage, a native Italian (representing the Romans) opposes a foreign Trojan settlement in Italy by insulting their leader, Aeneas; Among the insults were derisive comments about the use of sleeves, which the Italian described as unmanly. Aeneas had come from Troy, which was in Asia, and so the Trojans were Asian and wore Persian clothing. In the Aeneid, the Trojans must abandon their Asiatic way of life before conquering a place in Italy. It need not have been outright neglect, however, as Julius Caesar's biographer Suetonius reported that the purple striped senatorial tunic Julius Caesar wore under his toga had fringed sleeves. PARASOL. Umbrellas were known in the Mycenaean world but disappeared in Greece in the Middle Ages. They emerge in the late 6th century B.C. BC on vase paintings again. as part of a wealthy woman's wardrobe, although apparently they were not intended exclusively for women. The lyric poet Anacreon, who enjoyed the patronage of a Samoan tyrant until Persia was conquered in 522 BC. conquered the island. E.C., used his poetry to criticize a guy named Artemon, who wore gold earrings and held an ivory parasol: "As fancy as you want! ” In Athens, the parasol became a status symbol for the freeborn woman. In Athens of the 5th century B.C. of the EC there was a clear distinction between citizens and metics or resident aliens. After mid-century, when the statesman Pericles passed a law banning citizenship from anyone whose parents were not Athenian citizens, it was impossible for a Metic to become a citizen. Thus the Athenian citizenry became an elite group that kept outsiders at bay. The umbrella marked the division. There was a law that may have been of the same period as that of Pericles.

PRESENTATION OF THE GIRL'S DRESS:

The Latin writer Aulus Gelius was a wealthy Roman who received the standard education in rhetoric in Rome and then went to Athens to study philosophy. He had a habit of making notes of things he seemed to remember whenever he read a book in Latin or Greek, and during a winter spent in a rural area outside Athens he began compiling them into a collection which he later wrote. . published as Noctes Atticae (Attic Nights). He wrote during the reigns of Emperor Antoninus Pius (AD 138–161) and his successor Marcus Aurelius (AD 161–180). In the following excerpt he refers to the criticism of the second century BC. by E. C. Roman Publius Scipio Africanus on the feminine attire of his compatriot Sulpicius Gallus, who wore long-sleeved tunics. Long sleeves were considered Persian elegance and were not appropriate attire for a robust and masculine 2nd century BC Roman.

In Rome and throughout Latium it was considered unseemly for a man to wear tunics that reached over his arms and down to his wrists and almost to his fingers. Our compatriots called these tunics the Greek name chiridotae (long sleeves), thinking that for women, and only women, a long flowing garment is not unsuitable for damaging their arms and legs in front of everyone. But Roman men at first wore the toga alone, without tunics; then they had short, tight tunics that ended below the shoulders, which the Greeks call exomidas (sleeveless). Accustomed to this old fashion, Publius Africanus, son of Paul, a man endowed with all dignified arts and all virtues, among many others, accused Publius Sulpicius Gallus, a effeminate man, among them this one who wore tunics that they they covered their whole hands. Scipio's words are: "To the one who perfumes himself daily and dresses in front of a mirror, whose eyebrows are trimmed, who goes out of the house with a trimmed beard and smoothed thighs, who at banquets reclines young in a long-sleeved tunic Under the bed with of a lover who not only likes wine but also likes men, will anyone doubt that she is doing what libertines are wont to do? SOURCE:

Aulo Gelio, The Attic Nights of Aulo Gelio. volume 2 of 3 volumes. Trans. John C. Rolfe (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1927): 57, 59. Text modified by James Allan Evans.

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Citizenship law obliging daughters of Meticais to carry umbrellas and stools for citizens' daughters in the Panathenaic procession. The parasol was not just protection from the sun; it was a status symbol. Persian fashion in Rome. "I hate Persian frivolity, boy," wrote the poet Horace in the first line of one of his odes. Horace explained that he liked the simple life. He lived under Emperor Augustus and enjoyed the generous patronage of one of Augustus' ministers, Maecenas, thereby expressing official opinion on luxury in dress and life in general. This view of Persian fashion was not just a matter of taste, but a clever piece of propaganda, reminiscent of the Greeks' departure from Persian fashion after their warlike disputes with Persia. Augustus had begun his political career as the teenage grandnephew and adopted heir of the powerful Roman politician Julius Caesar; After Caesar's assassination, Augustus had to defeat Mark Antony and Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt, before he could become master of the empire. The advertisements portrayed Cleopatra as the epitome of oriental luxury, which extended to her clothing. Augustus presented himself as a champion of Roman traditions in dress as in everything else. However, Romans who could afford it liked luxurious clothes. The longest fragment of a novel written by Petronius during the reign of Emperor Nero (54-68 BC) describes a festival thrown by a wealthy former slave named Trimalchio, who liked to show off his wealth. He made a grand entrance in the banquet hall in a sedan chair, clad in a bright scarlet cloak and tasseled napkin, with a wide purple sash in imitation of the senatorial fringe around his neck, which he was not lawful to wear as a freedman. She wore rings on her fingers and on her right arm a gold bracelet and an ivory bracelet with a shiny metal clasp. The outfit conveyed a message, and the message of Trimalchio's costume was that he had "done it". PERSIAN COSTUME AT THE END OF THE EMPIRE. By the time of the late Roman Empire, imperial court dress under Diocletian (AD 284–305) and Constantine (AD 324–337) borrowed heavily from Persian fashions. Constantine began wearing a beaded diadem as a symbol of his autocratic power. Costumes borrowed from the Persian court signaled the authority of the emperor in late antiquity. Persia provided much of the trappings for the imperial court as the Roman Empire evolved into the Byzantine Empire. SOURCES

MC Miller, Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study of Cultural Receptiveness (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 106

—, „The Umbrella: An Oriental Status Symbol in Archaic and Late Classical Athens“, Journal of Hellenic Studies 112 (1992): 91–105. GM A. Richter, "Griechen in Persien", American Journal of Archaeology 50 (1946): 16–30.

THE DRESS

VON

ROMAN WOMEN

GIRL DRESS. Freeborn girls, i.e. those whose parents were not slaves, wore the same clothing as freeborn boys: a toga over a tunic. The toga was the praetexta toga with a purple border that must have been wool. The violet rim was, at least in its origin, apotropaic, meaning it protected the wearer from the evil eye or other unseen dangers that might attack a child. Her hair was carefully combed, braided, and tied with a single strip of wool called a vitta in Latin, or "beef" in English. The fillet was probably white, signifying purity. A boy also carried a bula, or relic, which contained an amulet, i. H. an amulet used to ward off evil spirits or miasma that might infect him, but it seems the girls did not wear them. Few carvings of young Romans wearing the toga praetexta survive, but those that do not show blisters. However, a girl could wear some kind of necklace that could serve the same purpose as an amulet. When a girl reached puberty, she removed her toga praetexta and dedicated it to the goddess "Fortuna Virginalis", Venus in her capacity as the tutelary goddess of young girls. This was the sign that she was ready for marriage. THE COSTUME OF THE ROMAN BRIDE. On the night before her wedding day, a bride wore the straight tunic, so called because it was woven on the old vertical loom that weavers had abandoned for normal cloth making. The wedding rite required the bride to weave her white wool cloak on the vertical loom, as well as her hammock, which was dyed yellowish-orange, the color of flame. On the wedding day, the fillets of hair and the net showed her chastity, in Latin her modesty. Around his tunic he put a belt made of sheep's wool, a female sheep. The belt was tied in a knot which the husband untied as they walked to the marital bed together. Then the bride puts on the yellowish-red colored bridal veil. He would protect her from evil spirits when she traveled from her father's house to her husband's house, or, more ritually, when she left the protection of her own family's lares (domestic gods) to her husband's lares. Her new husband gave her fire and water.

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EPITAPHES OF A MASTER AND A HAIRDRESSER INTRODUCTION:

Wealthy women in Rome had their own barbers and seamstresses, who were usually slaves. Seamstresses and hairdressers were available for discerning lovers. A lady who found her hairstyle unsatisfactory would not hesitate to slap her slave. Many slaves who died left no trace of their existence, save perhaps for a tombstone erected by a friend or fellow slave. The epitaphs on the two tombstones listed below are first for a seamstress named Italia and second for a hairdresser named Psamate. Think how young they were when they died; Italia was twenty and Psamate only nineteen.

To Italy, seamstress for Cocceia Phyllis. He lived twenty years. Acastus, his fellow slave, paid for this tombstone because he was poor. Psamate, Furia's barber, lived to be nineteen. Mitthrodates, the baker of Flaccus Thorius, erected this tombstone. SOURCE:

Jo-Ann Shelton, „Working Women“, em How the Romans Did It: A Sourcebook on Roman Social History. 2ª Aufl. (Nova York: Oxford University Press, 1998): 303–304. Mulher romana com estola.

CREATED BY CECILY EVANS. HE

GALE GROUP.

ter entering her house, and placed a coin on the small altar of her husband's lares, which would have stood in a niche in a wall near the entrance. When he moved to a new neighborhood in the city, he placed another coin on the altar of the neighborhood's home, the Lares Compitales. THE MARRIED WOMAN. The standard clothing of the Roman matron, i.e. a married woman, was the stole. It was a dress held at the shoulders by straps; it fell to her feet and looked like a modern combination, only the skirt was fuller and fell into distinct folds called pleats. On his shoulders and on his head he wore a cloak called Palla. Proper Roman women wore headgear, and the consequences of neglecting this fashion element could be severe. In the second century B.C. A Roman named Sulpicius Gallus, consul in 166 B.C.E. He divorced his wife because she left the house bareheaded. A Roman woman's hair also indicated her status as a married woman; her hair must be carefully arranged and tied with ribbons. He

the stole and quilts that held back her hair would remain the attire of a chaste married woman for the rest of her life. HARMFUL WOMEN. Just as the clothing demonstrated the purity of the Roman girl and the fidelity of the Roman woman, so did adulteresses and prostitutes wear different clothing. When a husband divorced his wife because she was having an affair with another man, she wore a plain white robe; he no longer had the right to wear a stole. Proper attire for a prostitute was also a toga. This particular way of labeling impure women seems to have loosened up over time. Juvenal, the bitter satirist of Roman life who lived in the second century AD, claimed that it was difficult to find a virtuous woman in Rome at the time, but no one wore the toga. THE WIDOW. When a woman's husband died, she removed the stole and replaced it with a ricinium, a word derived from the Latin verb meaning "to retire." The ricinio was a shawl made from a square cloth.

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SEXY DRESS IN ROME BY AUGUST INTRODUCTION:

Ovid's Ars Amatoria (The Art of Love) is an ingenious manual on the art of seduction, published in 2 BC. In the next passage, Ovid tells women how to style their hair and dress stylishly on a budget. Purple dye was expensive and highly prized, but there were other less expensive dyes that were just as effective. It ends with a purely imaginary illustration of the myth: Briseis, about whom Achilles and Agamemnon were fighting in Homer's Iliad, was a blonde dressed in black and the wife of the Trojan hero Hector was brunette and dressed in white.

FUENTE :

Ovidio, "The Art of Loving III", in Love Poems. Trans. AD Melville (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990): 131-133.

which one woman doubled up and then seemingly threw half over her shoulder. Wearing it was a sign of mourning, and as such it was likely dark in color and made of naturally dark wool. The widow wore ricinium for the prescribed year of mourning. It is possible that he would have used it longer had he not remarried, but this cannot be conclusively proven. THE UNIQUE WOMAN. Roman marriages were usually arranged. Parents found suitable husbands for their daughters. Romantic love sometimes gets in the way of their plans, and it is significant that the god who made young people fall in love was Cupid, son of Venus, who shot poisoned arrows at his victims. In other words, romantic love was a poison that caused young men and women to neglect their duties to their families and seek inappropriate connections. There were probably not many unmarried women in ancient Rome. In Roman law, an unmarried woman and a widow were considered equal, but it is unclear if they used the 108

The same thing. It is also unclear what the proper attire was for a woman divorced for reasons other than adultery, especially at a time when some Roman men were marrying and divorcing for political reasons. It is understood, however, that the dress prescribed for women was part of the customs of ancient Rome, known by the Romans as mos Maiorum, the way of life of our ancestors. Although the Romans revered the customs of their ancestors, they did not always follow them religiously, so guidelines on what women should wear at different stages of life may not have been strictly followed. THE LATEST STYLE. Although fashions in ancient Greece and Rome changed much more slowly than they do today, it was important to keep up. Wealthy Roman women had their own seamstresses and barbers, who were usually slaves; If they failed to gratify their lovers' whims, they could be flogged. Evidence of hairstyles comes from portrait sculptures and

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Graphic. In the sixth century B.C. In Greece, both young men and women wore elaborate hairstyles, judging by the so-called kouros and kore sculptures, ie free-standing statues showing naked young men and clothed young women, erected in Archaic times. Marbling (laying the hair in rows of waves) and braiding the hair must have taken hours of preparation. In the classical period, hairstyles became easier. Emperor Augustus established the style with short hair slicked forward over the forehead in Rome during the August period, and his wife Livia is depicted with her hair parted in the middle and hammered. By the end of the first century, curls pinned up on the head were in fashion. Hair dye turned brunettes into blondes, which was the trendiest color. Sometimes the results have been disastrous; The Latin poet Ovid wrote a poem of sympathy for his beloved who had lost her hair to the use of strong hair dye. SOURCES

George MA Hanfmann, Classical Sculpture (Greenwich, Connecticut: New York Graphic Society, 1967). Mary G. Houston, Ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Costume. 2nd ed. (London, England: Adam and Charles Black, 1947). Laetitia La Follette, "The Costume of the Roman Bride", in The World of Roman Costumes. Eds. Judith Lynn Sebesta and Larissa Bonfante (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994): 54–64. Judith Lynn Sebesta, "Symbolism in Roman Female Costume," in The World of Roman Costume. Eds. Judith Lynn Sebesta and Larissa Bonfante (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994): 46–53.

THE CLOTHING

AGAIN

SOLDIER

MILITARY ARMAMENTS IN FIRST GREECE. Armor evolved over the long stretch of Greek and Roman history, but the requirements remained standard. Armor should protect the soldier's body, allow free movement of arms and legs, and be pleasing to the eye. Some of the earliest examples of military dress date from the late Mycenaean period; A vase called "Warrior Vase" shows soldiers marching in columns. They wear helmets and short kilts with tassels exposing the legs, and carry shields in the shape of a figure eight, shields compressed in the middle so that the soldier can still hold them when holding them in front of him, around his body to protect Use his weapons to repel the enemy. The warriors described in Homer's Iliad who fought in the Trojan War wore similar armor except for most of them

Bone tablets from the 4th century BC. B.C. With figures of armed soldiers carrying shield and spear, from a necropolis at Columbella, south of Palestrina, outside Rome. THE ART ARCHIVE/MUSEUM OF THE VILLA GIULIA ROMA/DAGLI ORTI.

described as having round shields. Their armor allowed them to run when the spears they threw at their enemies missed their mark. THE HOPLITE. As the Greek Middle Ages drew to a close, the warrior found in Homer's Iliad gave way to a heavily armed foot soldier known as a hoplite. He wore a helmet, a metal corset with metal shoulder pads, and a triangular plate called a miter to protect his groin. His legs below the knee were protected by greaves shaped like armor like the leg and fastened behind the calf. Under the bodice she wore a linen tunic, and below her waist was a sort of pleated leather skirt that protected her lower body somewhat. It appears that he was barefoot as art usually depicts him barefoot. He got the name "Hoplite" from his big round shield, called Hoplon. He fought in formation in eight ranks so that his shield on his left arm protected the right side of the hoplite beside him, while his own right side was protected by the shield.

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It was the battle formation used by Alexander in the two major battles in which he defeated the Persian king Darius Codomanos and conquered the Persian Empire. THE ROMAN ARMY. The army that dominated the battlefields of the ancient world the longest was the army of Rome. In the early days of the Roman Republic it was a citizen army. A field consul (Rome elected two consuls each year to serve as chief magistrates of state and commander-in-chief) recruited troops from the census list of those who were eligible for service and owned property. At the end of the second century B.C. Rome was in dire need of more recruits, and a soldier named Marius, who held the consulate seven times in his life, opened the army post to all volunteers. The next major change came with Emperor Augustus, who instituted a citizen army consisting of legionaries, who were citizens, and auxiliaries, who were non-citizens and paid slightly less. We find his armor represented in sculpture; Trajan's Column in Rome is particularly useful as it depicts Emperor Trajan's campaigns in Dacia, modern-day Romania. Sometimes the archaeologist's shovel will uncover or accidentally find fragments of a soldier's equipment.

Roman soldier in armor of the type known as "lorica segmentata", first introduced in the 1st century AD. CREATED BY CECILY EVANS. THE GALE GROUP.

Hoplite on the other side. As long as the formation known as the phalanx remained intact, a hoplite army could avoid heavy casualties. It was different when the phalanx was broken. The hoplite was not an agile soldier, as running in full hoplite armor was not easy. As Athenian hoplites in 490 B.C. Defeating the Persians at the Battle of Marathon appears to have been the first time a hoplite army had attacked while fleeing. In the 4th century B.C. In about 300 BC, the Greeks discovered how effective the small-armed soldier called "Peltast" could be against hoplites, especially in rough terrain unsuitable for hoplite tactics. The "peltast" wore a pelte, a small and light rimless leather shield that did not impede his movements; If a hoplite had to run for his life, the best he could do was drop his shield, and that was considered a great misfortune. However, the Greek armies continued to use the phalanx. Philip II of Macedon (reigned 359-336 BC), father of Alexander the Great, renovated and enlarged it and armed the troops with spears about 4 meters long. this 110

MAIL ARMOR. Roman soldiers in the Republic wore mail, which was not abolished until the first century AD. Chain mail was made by interlacing an iron ring with four others. A knitted corset required great skill and patience to make, but once completed required little maintenance. Iron rings rubbing against each other kept the mail clean. The peasants who formed the backbone of Roman armies in the early Republic likely wore chain mail inherited from their parents or grandparents. Knitted Shirts in the Republican Era through the 1st Century B.C. meet mid-thigh; In the early Imperial period from Emperor Augustus (27 BC – AD 14) they wore just below the waist, but the soldier was given additional protection by strips of leather called pteruges on the shoulders and around the waist. Chain mail left a lot to be desired, for although it protected a man from the blow of a sword, it was poor protection from the blow of an arrow or dagger. The arrow does not have to pierce the armor to kill, as it could force the chainmail rings into the wound and cause infection, and the consequences could be fatal. ARMOR. Scale armor consisted of bronze or iron plates of various sizes connected in rows and then stacked like shingles on a roof. He

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The finished product looked like fish scales, hence the name. It was cheaper to produce than chain mail and offered better protection. The downside was that it was more difficult to put on and take off. During periods of relative calm, soldiers could rely on assistance in donning their armor, but if a detachment was caught off guard by a surprise attack, some of the soldiers might not be able to don their armor in time to reach them. with enemy attack. Scale armor was standard equipment in the Persian army long before Rome adopted it, because when Herodotus described in his history books the army King Xerxes used in 480 B.C. Tunics with sleeves and chains patterned like fish scales. This style of armor remained popular in the east, both with Parthia, Rome's enemy on the eastern frontier at the time of Emperor Augustus, and with the Sassanid Persians who took control of the Parthian kingdom in the 3rd century AD. The Persians used cavalry on both horsemen. and horses armed from head to toe in scale armor reminiscent of medieval knights, except the knights rode without stirrups. Always quick to borrow good ideas, the Romans adopted scale armor for both infantry and heavy cavalry. ARMOR PLATE (LORICA SEGMENTATA). A metal strip corset, called lorica segmentata in Latin, is the type most commonly associated with the Roman soldier. It is the armor of choice for film directors making cinematic epics about ancient Rome. It was invented at the beginning of the 1st century AD. and one theory is that it was introduced after a military disaster in AD 9. when three Roman legions were annihilated in the Teutoberg Forest in Germany. However, excavations at a site identified as the scene of the disaster have uncovered fragments of an early form of Lorica Segmentata, showing that some of the Roman legionaries who lost their lives in the Teutoberg Forest actually wore a corset. from metal strips. Therefore, the invention was not the result of a catastrophe, although its rapid introduction may have been. The breastplate, which protected the chest and midriff, had overlapping straps and curved shoulder pads that offered good protection. The downside was the fasteners: the soldier held the armor to his body with Velcro which was never entirely satisfactory. In addition, the soldier's sweat during combat degraded the leather straps that held the metal plates in place, and the resulting damage could require expensive repairs. However, the initial cost of making this type of breastplate was less than chainmail or scale mail. It is generally believed that cuirass made of strips of metal attached to a leather lining became more or less standard

The Augustus of Primaporta, marble copy of a bronze sculpture of Caesar Augustus addressing his soldiers, extending his right hand and holding a breastplate with mythological and historical scenes in bas-relief, Roman, High Empire, c. 20 B.C. © BETTMANN/CORBIS. REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION.

the Roman legionnaire of the second quarter of the 1st century AD until the 3rd century AD when it was abandoned. However, this theory is difficult to prove with evidence from ancient and archaeological monuments. The column, which still stands at the center of Rome and depicts Emperor Trajan's (98-117 AD) campaigns in Dacia (modern-day Romania), shows legionary soldiers wearing the lorica segmentata. It seems to have been standard equipment for regular troops, while auxiliaries, not citizens, recruited from Roman provinces wore other styles such as chain mail. But most of the Lorica segmentata breastplate accessories that archaeologists have discovered come from Roman forts held by auxiliaries, not Roman legions. Although Trajan's Column in Rome shows the lorica segmentata as the legionnaire's standard armor, there is another monument commemorating Trajan's campaign in Dacia - a tropaeum, or "monument of victory", erected at Adamklissi in Romania

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Chest and abdominal muscles, which the viewer assumes below. (Actually, Augustus did not have the physique of an athlete; he was not an impressive physical specimen.) Statues of torsos encased in armor plates of this type were found throughout the empire, often without heads, as the heads were carved separately and individually at the base of the neck attached. It was a popular type for statues of emperors. In fact, archaeologists have not found a single example of an actual Roman "muscular breastplate", although there are surviving examples from the Hellenistic period. This suggests that in Roman times, muscular cuirass was parade armor more popular with sculptors than on the battlefield. Roman sculptors show two types: one with a high waist, which would be suitable for a knight, and one that falls below the hips, with a curved extension at the bottom, which would not be very suitable for a knight. These breastplates were attached at the sides with hinges or rings that were tied together.

A man wearing a cucullus (a hooded outer garment).

CREATED

BY CECILY EVANS. THE GALE GROUP.

Legionnaires and auxiliaries wear scale armor. The Adamklissi Monument was carved by artists who were close to the front lines and knew what the Romans and Dacians actually wore in battle. The sculptors who carved the great spiral of Trajan's Column, depicting the Dacian campaign on a continuous frieze, worked in Rome. They only knew what the legionnaire should wear, not what he wore. "MUSCLE ARMOR". The "muscle breastplate", covering the torso and showing the pectoral and abdominal muscles underneath, developed in the Hellenistic world and became a popular type of imperial sculpture by Emperor Augustus. One of the most famous statues of Augustus, the Prima Porta statue, shows him in a warrior's uniform with a muscular breastplate modeling the musculature of his abdomen. Augustus is depicted with the physique of an athlete - in fact his body has the proportions used by the classical sculptor Polykleitos for his athletic nudes - and his cuirass follows the contours of his well-developed body.

HELMETS. The helmet of the first Roman legionnaire was an inverted hemispherical shell with cheeks. A large number of these helmets were found in a region of northern Italy called Montefortino, which is why it is now referred to as the Montefortino Helmet. A cheaper alternative to the Montefortino was the Coolus type, which had a neck brace to protect the back of the head. Both types were borrowed from the Celts, with whom the Romans began in 387 BC. fought many battles. when a horde of Celts towards the end of the second century B.C. CE Rome plundered. The Romans Romanized them by adding crests, initially composed of feathers placed in a protrusion on the crown of the helmet, but by the end of the 1st century B.C. They were horsehair, red or black. During the Civil War of the first century B.C. C.E. New styles of helmets emerged, made of iron instead of bronze, with prominent cheek guards, raised eyebrows, and ribs on the back of the helmet. The coat of arms was no longer attached to a button, but to a crest mounted on top of the helmet. Coats of arms were ornaments and may have been used in battle in the early Imperial period, but the troops shown on Trajan's Column wore no coats of arms. The helmet continued to evolve to offer the wearer better protection until the third century AD when the head was almost completely covered. KEEP WARM. Roman armies operated in a variety of climates, from the cold, damp climate of Hadrian's Wall in Britain to the Euphrates River in modern-day Iraq. Keeping cool in hot weather was a real problem. Troops clad in chains operating on the eastern frontier were known as clibanarii, a word derived from clibanus meaning "oven". In other words, when it's hot and-

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Roasted Dressed Troops. However, in colder climates, the soldier had multiple layers to keep warm. The variable-length, sleeveless robe called paenula was made of heavy woolen fabric, leather, or sometimes fur. It varied in length and sometimes had a hood. It survives as a chasuble, a sleeveless garment worn by priests during mass. Another garment picked up as a church garment was the dalmatic, so called because it was woven from the wool of sheep from Dalmatia (the east coast of the Adriatic). It was a long tunic with long, wide sleeves that came into fashion in the 2nd century AD. The cucullus was a close-fitting robe with a peaked hood that reached to the waist. It offered protection from rain and cold. If it was open in the front it had to be closed with some kind of clasp, but if it was closed in the front it had to be pulled over the head like a poncho. The lacerna was a cloak first worn by troops and became popular with civilians because it was a practical garment for the toga. The sagum was a short, stiff, woolen military cloak borrowed by Rome from the Gauls that became so popular with soldiers that "wearing the sagum" became a slang term for war. It was probably nothing more than a rectangle of heavy fabric, slung over the shoulders and tied under the chin. The paludamentum was a military cloak for the general. It was woven of purple wool, and although size may vary, a good estimate of its size is nine feet long and five feet wide. In the sculptural representation it is fastened to the right shoulder with a round clasp and then pulled back to display the muscular cuirass of the general or emperor. It was a dress for parades, not campaigns. KEEP YOUR LEGS WARM. The opinion shared by Greeks and Romans was that trousers were barbaric clothing. The Gauls used them. They were called Bracae in Latin, a word related to the English word "breeches". Virgil called them "the barbaric leg coverings" in his Aeneid. At the time of the Roman Republic, the province of Transalpine Gaul, i.e. the Gaul beyond the Alps, bore the unofficial name "Gallia bracata": Gaul where trousers are worn. On the other hand, Gaul Cisalpina, Gaul south of the Alps, that is, in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. the Po Valley of Italy colonized by the Gauls. C., was "Gallia togata": the Gaul where togas were worn. If Roman soldiers considered trousers barbaric, they condescended to wearing socks. At Vindolanda, one of the forts along Hadrian's Wall in Britain, a cache of Roman tablets contained a letter from a Roman.

male soldier thanking a friend or relative for the gift of socks and underwear. Socks were also worn by civilians, often in bright colors. Emperor Augustus himself, who was not robust, liked warm socks. By the fourth century CE, paintings and mosaics show a new type of leg covering that appears to consist of a strip of cloth wrapped around the lower legs, like the spats worn by soldiers in World War I. The soldier was probably also wearing socks over his military boots. Roman prejudice against trousers was not universal; Soldiers recruited from non-citizen provincials who had served in the Roman forces for 25 years and received citizenship on discharge apparently wore trousers. SOURCES

Norma Goldman, "Reconstructing Roman Costume," in The World of Roman Costume. Ed. Judith Lynn Sebesta and Larissa Bonfante (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994): 213-237. Mary G. Houston, Costume and Decoration of Ancient Greece, Rome, and Byzantium. 2nd ed. (London, England: Adam and Charles Black, 1947). A.H. Snodgrass, Early Greek Armor and Weapons (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1964). —, Arms and Armor of the Greeks (London, England: Thames and Hudson, 1967). Graham Sumner, The Roman Army: Wars of the Empire (London, England: Brassey's, 1997). George R. Watson, The Roman Soldier (London, England: Thames and Hudson, 1969).

IMPORTANT PEOPLE in fashion ALKIBIADES c. 450 BC - 404 BC CREATING THE RIGHT IMPRESSION. Public figures in Greece often dressed to impress, and none more so than Alcibiades, the Athenian general who ruled in 420 BC. took over the leadership of the extremist democrats in Athens. and he contributed as much as anyone to Athens' defeat in the Peloponnesian War that ended in 404 BC. ended. with the surrender of Athens to Sparta and its allies. Alcibiades intended by his fashion and his

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personal life to attract attention as a member of the "smart set" in Athens, a group often condemned by conservative Athenians for disrespecting principle or tradition. Plutarch (ca. 46, after AD 120), in a brief biography of Alcibiades, compared his cleverness as a statesman to the waste of his private life. But with all these words and deeds, and with all this wit and eloquence, he mixed exorbitant luxury and licentiousness into his eating, drinking, and licentious living; he wore long purple robes like a woman who dragged him behind her as he crossed the market square; he had the boards of his trireme shortened so that he could lie flatter, and he placed his bed not on the boards but on the straps.

Alcibiades took great care of his appearance; He refused to learn to play the aulos, the reed wind instrument often incorrectly called the "flute," because the person playing it frowned so much it looked ugly. Alcibiades considered the lyre to be a much more appropriate instrument, largely because one could still speak and sing while playing the lyre. Alcibiades promoted the ill-fated Athenian campaign against Sicily (415-413 BC), which ended in complete disaster. Alcibiades himself was born in 415 BC. Recalled from Sicily. face a charge of sacrilege; Not daring to face an Athenian court, he defected to Sparta. Once there, he adopted the austere Spartan lifestyle and gave up his expensive Milesian wool cloak. He took cold baths and exercised regularly, naked like the Spartans. Then, having exhausted his reception in Sparta, he transferred his services to Persia and adopted Persian dress and the Persian way of life. He eventually responded to a call from the Athenian fleet's sailors to lead them, and once again became an Athenian general until his fleet was defeated by Sparta. He was not personally responsible for the defeat, but lost command and did not dare return to Athens. Athens surrendered in 404 BC. C., and after the surrender, Alcibiades was assassinated at the instigation of Sparta, believing that Athens would never accept defeat as long as Alcibiades lived. SOURCES

Edmund Bloedow, Alcibiades Reexamined (Wiesbaden, Deutschland: Franz Steiner, 1971). Walter M. Ellis, Alcibiades (Londres, Inglaterra: Routledge, 1989). Donald Kagan, The Fall of the Athenian Empire (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987). —, The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1981). 114

CONSTANCE II 317 AD–361 AD ROMAN EMPEROR'S GARBAGE FOR THE IMPERIAL OFFICE. Roman emperors, starting with the first emperor Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), always tried to protect the dignity and prestige of their office with their clothing and behavior, but from the end of the 3rd century AD .in addition to ordinary citizens has become more prominent. One of the most striking descriptions of this period of an emperor that is put on public display concerns Constantius II, who inherited the empire along with his two brothers Constantine II and Constantine after the death of his father Constantine I in AD 337. After the death of his brothers in 340 and 350 respectively, he became ruler of the entire empire. In 357 C.E. Constantius II visited Rome for the first time, and the last great classical historian to write in Latin, Ammianus Marcellinus, vividly describes his ceremonial entry into the city. The emperor rode on a golden chariot studded with jewels. Before him stood servants with banners in the form of fluttering dragons attached to the tips of jeweled golden spears. On either side of his chariot were soldiers with shields, feathered helmets, and shining breastplates, and with them paraded cavalrymen wearing armor of thin steel plates covering their bodies. Constantius II looked straight ahead, ignoring the applause, although as he passed under a door he leaned forward slightly, as if too tall to fit under it, but thought himself a rather small man. He didn't spit or blow his nose; Instead, she remained motionless even as her carriage swayed over a bump in the road. He tried to look superhuman. REFLECTS THE CHANGE OF STATE. While the Roman Empire was still pagan, Roman emperors were considered divine and loyal subjects who were sacrificed to them. But after Constantine I, all but one of the Roman emperors were Christians, and their relationship to the divine world had to change. Emperors became the representatives of God on earth in heaven and as such had to adapt their style and behavior to this new Christian concept of imperial office. The "advent" or ceremonial entry of Constantius II into Rome in AD 357 is a vivid illustration of this new fashion in practice. SOURCES

Amiano Marcellinus, The Later Roman Empire. Between. Walter Hamilton (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1986): 100-101.

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HP L'Orange, The Roman Empire: Art Forms and Civic Life (Nueva York, Rizzoli, 1985).

Emperors often granted them banishment from Rome. SOURCES

DIOGENES c. 400 BC -C. 325 BC B.C. Philosopher FASHION FOR A PHILOSOPHER. Philosophers did not always dress according to convention. Empedocles (c. 493–c. 433 BC), best known for defining the four elements of earth, air, fire and water, wore bronze-soled sandals. Socrates was barefoot in all weathers. But the philosopher who made a cult of avoiding all luxuries was Diogenes of Sinope, who founded the Cynic school of philosophy (although some attribute its founding to a disciple of Socrates named Antisthenes, whom Diogenes considered his teacher). Diogenes was banished from Sinope on the southern Black Sea coast, some say he or his father were the city's mint masters and minted coins falsified with base metals. Arriving in Athens, he soon gained a reputation as a man who rejected all conventions. He held that a person would attain happiness by satisfying their needs in the simplest way. DAMAGE THE OF FINERY. Several stories have been told about his rude comments to the posh people he met. A richly dressed young man asked him some questions, and Diogenes said he would not answer until he knew whether his questioner was male or female. He said it to a man who was posing because he wore a lion's skin so as not to dishonor nature's robe. When she saw a young man who dressed carefully to appear elegant and handsome, she told him that if she adorned herself to impress men, she would be pitied, and if she adorned herself for women, she would be immoral. His rudeness earned him the nickname "Dog" (in Greek "kyon"), whence the word "cynical" comes from; hence his followers were called "cynics". IT IS NOT A FORMAL SCHOOL. The Cynics were never organized into a formal school of philosophy, but like the "hippies" of 1960s and 1970s America, each Cynic chose his own philosophy. The common thread among the Cynics was love of the simple life and contempt for fine dress and all possessions. Although the Cynic sect in the second and first centuries B.C. It died out in the first century AD, and Rome was full of Cynic beggar philosophers whose torn clothing proclaimed their vocation. Like Diogenes, they exercised the right to free speech and their open criticism of the

Donald R. Dudley, A History of Cynicism from Diogenes to the 6th Century AD (London, England: Bristol Classical Press, 1998). Mark Edwards, "Cynics", en Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition. ed. Graham Speake (Chicago, Illinois: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2000): 426-427.

MODERN DOCUMENTARY SOURCES Author unknown, Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. AD 100): The unknown author of this seaman's handbook was familiar with trade along the sea routes from the ports of the Red Sea to India and between goods arriving in the east of the Roman Empire were Indian cotton, raw silk, silk threads and silk fabrics, as well as "lilac cloth" or jute, a raw fiber now used for jute sacks. Herodotus, The Histories (ca. 425 BC) - The main subject of The Histories is the Persian War of 480-479 BC. when Persia tried to invade Greece, but Herodotus explains why Athenian women at the end of the 6th Ovid, The Art of Love (c. AD 1): Ovid's manual of poems on winning the love of women contains a wealth of information about the fashion of Rome during the reign of Emperor Augustus. Phaidimos, Peplos Kore (c. 530 BC): Dedicated in the sanctuary of Athena on the Acropolis of Athens and discovered during excavations of the Acropolis in the late 19th century, this statue of a girl depicts a simple Doric style peplos the Athenian. women in the mid-sixth century B.C. Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus), Natural History (c. AD 79): This vast body of information was still being collated when Pliny was killed in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. It contains a lot of information about clothes. do and die in Italy in the first century AD. Plutarch, Life of Alexander the Great (after AD 100): Collection of biographies of Plutarch entitled Parallel

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Lives encompasses a life of Alexander the Great, who recounts his fondness for Asian attire: he did not go so far as to adopt trousers, a sleeved waistcoat, or the pointed hat known as the "tiara", but instead adopted other fashions from Persia to anger his Macedonian compatriots. Unknown Sculptor, Kore of the Acropolis of Athens with Ionic Chiton and Himation Above (ca. 510 BC): This statue of a young woman was made at the end of the 6th century BC. on the Acropolis of Athens. and her dress exemplifies the shift in fashion over the two decades since the inauguration of Peplos Kore. This girl wears a colorful linen chiton under a draped wool himation with a border that shows how draperies can skilfully weave patterned fabrics. Tertullian (Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus), De Pallio ("On my cloak"; AD 209): Tertullian, a courageous defender of Christianity, writes here in a cheerful tone. He was reprimanded for trading his gypsy toga for a pallium, a Greek robe favored by philosophers, and here he explains why.

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Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War (c. 400 BC): Thucydides' subject was the war between the Athenian Empire and the Spartan alliance (431–404 BC), but he presented it with a discussion of the economic and social progress of Greece in archaic times. Among the subjects he deals with are "fashion"; The Athenians, he claims, were the first to adopt luxurious "Ionian" linen clothing, while the Spartans wore simpler styles that had become the preferred fashion in Greece by the time of Thucydides. Livy, Ab urbe condita libri cxlii (“History of Rome since its founding, 142 books”; 39 BC – AD 17): A passage from Livy's History (34.1) describes a demonstration of women in Rome to a Repeal a law passed twenty years earlier, after Hannibal's disastrous Roman defeat at Cannae, which reined in expensive and luxurious fashions. Women continued to demonstrate until the law was repealed. Vegetius (Flavius Vegetius Renatus), De Re Militari ("On the Military Arts"; c. AD 390): Vegetius' subject is the art and science of war, but a section of his first book is devoted to that History of Arms and Armor.

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Chapter Four

Written by James Allan Evans

IMPORTANT EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 TOPICS The era of the Homeric epic. . . . . . . . . . . . The Boeotian School of Epic. . . . . . . . . . The Age of Poetry. . . . . . . . . . . . . poet for hire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Herodotus, the father of history. . . . . . . Thucydides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Story after Thucydides. . . . . . . . . . . . . Greek comedy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Greek tragedy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Art of Public Speaking in Greece. . . . Greek Literature after Alexander the Great. Roman theater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Latin poetry before Augustus. . . . Latin prose writers before the time of Augustus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The golden age of Latin literature under Augustus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Latin Literature of the Silver Age. . . . . . . Imperial Greek Literature. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

122 126 128 131 133 136 137 138 144 154 155 157 160

. . . . . 162 . . . . . 164 . . . . . 169 . . . . . 172

MEANINGFUL PEOPLE Aeschylus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thucydides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Virgil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

175 175 176 177

DOCUMENTARY SOURCES. . . . . . . . . 178 SIDEBARS AND MAIN DOCUMENTS Primary sources are listed in italics

A love poem by Sappho (Sappho writes about his desire for another woman). . . . . . . . . . Aristotle on Tragedy and Comedy (Aristotle discusses the six elements of tragedy). . . . Antigone's speech in defense of conscience. . . . The Great Library of Alexandria. . . . . . . . . . Lucretius and the Atomic Theory (Lucretius claims that nothing can be created from nothing). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Virgil's Proclamation of Rome's Mission (Virgil writes about Rome's mission to rule the world). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horace on Patriotism (Horace's poem praises commitment to Empire). . . . . . . . . .

. . . 130 . . . 145 . . . 148 . . . 156

. . . 161

. . . 166 . . . 168

117

462 BC Aeschylus produces his work Supplicant. 458 BC BC Aeschylus produces his trilogy, the Oresteia, consisting of Agamemnon, Choephoroe and Eumenides, all of whom survive; a satirical work, Proteus, is lost.

KEY EVENTS in literature c. 725 BC BC Homer's epic poems Iliad and Odyssey – c. 675 BC written. approx. 700 BC Chr Hesiod writes the Theogony and the Works and Days. w. 650 BC BC Archilochus of Paros gains a reputation for his iambic and elegiac poetry. w. 620 BC The poet Alceo de Lesbos is born. w. 612 B.C. The poet Sappho of Lesbos is born. 535 BC A theater competition is held in Athens for the first time. 534 BC BC Thespis of Icaria, the first tragedian to act as an actor and take a solo role alongside the chorus, wins a tragedy prize at the Athens theater competition. 518 BC The poet Pindar is born. w. 493 BC The Athenian tragedian Phrinicus produces The Capture of Miletus about the fall of Miletus to the Persians in 494 B.C. and is punished for reminding the Athenians too clearly of their friends' misfortune. 472 BC Aeschylus produces his work The Persians. 468 BC BC Sophocles wins his first tragic victory as a writer and defeats Aeschylus. 467 BC BC Aeschylus produces his Seven against Thebes, the last work in a trilogy about the Oedipus legend. 118

456 BC Aeschylus dies in Gela, Sicily. 455 BC BC Euripides appears for the first time in a tragic dispute with a series of three tragedies and a satyr play and is third, i.e. last. w. 442 BC BC Sophocles produces his tragedy, Antigone. 438 BC BC Euripides produces his play Alcestis, which has a happy ending and is replaced by a satyr play in its tetralogy. 425 BC Aristophanes produces his play Acharnians, the earliest surviving example of the Old Comedy. 405 BC BC Euripides dies a few months after Sophocles. 322 BC The orator Demosthenes dies by taking poison to avoid capture by the Macedonians. 305 BC The Calimaco is born. He becomes librarian of the great Alexandrian library and a typical poet of the Alexandrian school, writing for a small but educated group of readers. 293 BC Chr. Menander, the Athenian playwright and the greatest master of the new comedy, dies before his fiftieth year. w. 270 BC Chr. Gnaeus Naevius is born, author of the Latin epic “The War against Carthage” and inventor of the Roman historical work. 240 BC The first play, a Latin adaptation of a Greek tragedy by Livius Andronicus, is performed in Rome at the harvest festival (ludi Romani).

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239 BC The Roman poet Quintus Ennius was born in BC. He will write the Annals, eighteen books of epic poetry, written in dactylic hexameters, derived from Greek epic poetry.

Octavian, who was to become Emperor Augustus. At Maecenas' request, he wrote between 37 and 29 BC. his Georgik, a didactic poem in four books about agriculture.

205 BC BC Plautus will stage his play The Glorious Miles in Rome.

30 B.C. Chr. Horace publishes his Epodes, in which he converts the iambic of Archilochus into Latin.

166 BC Chr. Terence produces his first work, the Andria (wife of Andros).

23 BC Chr. Horace publishes the first three books of his Carmina, i.e. his songs.

106 BC Rome's greatest orator, Marcus Tullius Cicero, was born in the Italian city of Arpinum (modern-day Arpino). In addition to his speeches, Cicero wrote dialogues on philosophy, rhetoric, and religion, and a large corpus of his private letters also survives.

19 B.C. Virgil dies, leaving his epic poem The Aeneid unfinished. However, the Aeneid became the national epic of the Roman Empire.

w. 84 b.c. The poet Catullus was born in Verona. 70 B.C. Chr. Cicero pursues the politician Verres for misgovernment in Sicily. After the trial, Cicero publishes his speeches against Verres under the title Verrine Orations. 63 BC Chr. Cicero is consul and gives his four speeches to Catiline to uncover Catiline's conspiracy. Virgil was born near Mantua in what was then the Roman province of Cisalpine Gaul. 59 BC The Roman historian Titus Livius (Titus Livius) is born. He will write a history of Rome from its foundation. 44 B.C. Cicero delivers fourteen known speeches - 43 BC. like his "Philippians" attacking Mark Antony, Julius Caesar's aide who tried to seize power after Caesar's assassination. His criticism of Mark Antony led to his execution in late 43 BC.

w. 13 v. Chr Horacio publishes the fourth book of his Carmina. ca. 17 AD Columella (Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella) is born, the author of a treatise on agriculture. 37 AD Flavius Josephus is born. He will write Antiquities of the Jews and the Jewish War, an account of the rebellion in Judea that began in 66 BC. erupted. ca. 56 AD The historian Cornelius Tacitus is born. He will write the Annals, covering the history of the Julio-Claudian emperors from Tiberius to Nero and the history from the year of the four emperors AD 68 onwards. f. AD 65 Pliny the Younger (Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus) is born the nephew of Pliny the Elder. He will write the letters of Pliny and a eulogy (a formal prayer) in praise of Emperor Trajan. 65 AD The epic poet Lucanus is involved in a conspiracy against Emperor Nero and is forced to commit suicide.

43 BC Chr. Ovid was born in Sulmo, today's Sulmona, about 150 kilometers east of Rome.

f. AD 66 Petronius Arbiter, author of the Latin novel Satyricon, commits suicide after being falsely accused of treason against Emperor Nero.

w. 42 b.c. Chr. Virgil joins the circle of Maecenas, the wealthy minister of public affairs of Julius Caesar's heir and adopted son.

79 AD Pliny the Elder, author of natural history, dies when Mount Vesuvius erupts.

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LITERATURE REVIEW MOST IMPORTANT DATES. A general overview of the literature in the world of ancient Greece and Rome takes us back to the 8th century BC. to the 6th century AD, a period of almost 1,400 years. Greek literature began with the development of the Greek alphabet in the 8th century BC. which became the basis of the Latin alphabet still used by Romance languages. Greek literature then gave birth to Roman (Latin) literature as the Romans came under the influence of Greek culture; The conventional date for the beginning of Latin literature is 240 BC. when the former Greek slave Livio Andronikos translated the Odyssey of the Greek poet Homer into Latin. The unofficial end of Greco-Roman literature can be associated with the closure of the Neoplatonic Academy in Athens in AD 529, marking the end of Athens as a center for the teaching of Greek philosophy and the traditions of the pagan world. While this is a fitting marker for the end of the Graeco-Roman literary tradition, the literary and philosophical traditions of the pre-Christian Graeco-Roman world did not come to such an abrupt end. In addition, the production of Christian literature in Greek and Latin was not affected by the closure of the Academy of Athens. THE HERO AGE. In the years before 1100 B.C. There was a Bronze Age civilization in Greece that scholars have named "Mycenaean" after its most important center, Mycenae, in the region of Argolis, south of the Isthmus of Corinth. The Mycenaeans were descendants of Greek-speaking immigrants who arrived shortly after 2000 BC. came to Greece. C., but their civilization began around 1600 BC. to bloom. C. thanks to contacts with Egypt, the Middle East and especially with the "Minoan" civilization of Crete. Five hundred years later, this Mycenaean civilization ended, ruled by unknown invaders who left a trail of devastation in the eastern Mediterranean. However, as this civilization descended into the misty past, it left behind the literary legacy of a heroic age. The Greeks told stories of mythical heroes like Heracles, the superman of Greek mythology; Jason and his 120th

Argonauts sailing in search of the Golden Fleece; and Oedipus, king of Thebes in central Greece, destined to kill his own father and marry his mother. Greek literature began with oral bards singing poems about the exploits of such heroes in the banquet halls of aristocrats or at religious festivals. The most famous of these myths was the story of the Trojan War, in which the Greeks besieged the city of Troy to recover the kidnapped wife of a Greek king. The epic tale of famous warriors and scheming gods told in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey may be based on true events; Trojan ruins have been found in the northwest corner of Asia Minor near the entrance to the Hellespont. The Trojan myth provided material for Greek poetry and drama throughout the great period of Greek literature. HOMER AND EPIC POETRY. The written literature of Greece begins with Homer. We have no specific information about your identity. The legend that he was blind may be true, but it cannot be proven. The two epics attributed to him, the Iliad and the Odyssey, are about myths of the Trojan War but differ greatly in tone and mood. The Iliad describes how the hero Achilles made the pursuit of glory his primary goal, while the Odyssey tells a story of survival, while the Greek hero Odysseus undertakes a ten-year journey before returning home from war. The Homeric poems were not unique in their subject matter. Other poets told heroic tales, and fragments of their epics survive. But of the great harvest of heroic poetry, only the Iliad and the Odyssey are complete. At the same time there was another epic school, aimed at a less aristocratic audience, and its great exponent was Hesiod. OTHER POETIC FORMS. The epic soon had to share the limelight with other poetic genres such as elegiac, iambic, and personal and choral lyric. Elegiac poetry was perhaps first used for war poetry, since its first teachers wrote about the glories and horrors of war, but thanks to one of the first teachers of elegy, Mimnermus of Colophon, it became the preferred vehicle for expressing love and pleasure. the first hedonist in western literature. The most important teacher of iambic poetry was Archilochus of Paros, a cheerful cynic who attacked the ideals of chivalry and heroism in battle. Poetry dealt with personal feelings: political animosity, the enjoyment of wine and love. Alcaeus of Lesbos was a master of personal lyrics, that is, songs intended to be sung in private gatherings of like-minded people; The greatest of all lyric artists, Sappho, also from Lesvos, wrote about love and marriage with an intensity that no later poet could match.

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THE CORAL ODE. From the 6th to the 5th century B.C. BC two masters of a different kind of poetry became popular: Simonides of Ceos and Pindar. The first pioneered the Epinikion, an ode to victory sung by a choir in honor of the victor of one of the great sporting competitions. Simonides was also famous for the epigrams he wrote for the monuments of Greek warriors who died in the Persian Wars (490-479 BC), and a long papyrus fragment of his poem about the Battle of Plataea (479 BC) was recently discovered. BC). . . Pindar wrote a large number of poems, but what has survived are his songs of victory to winners at major sporting games. His style was elevated, with many references to Greek myths familiar to his listeners. Bachylides, the third notable author of choral texts, struck a different note. His style was direct and simple. It marks the end of the great era of choral poetry. THEATRE. The fifth century BC It was the great age of drama and the main patron was Athena. There were two dramatic festivals held in honor of Dionysus, the god of drama: the City of Dionysia in March and the Lenaean Festival in January. Comedy took center stage on the second day of the festival, followed by three full days of tragedy: one day for each tragic poet assigned to a choir by the Archon, the chief magistrate of Athens. Three tragedies were performed each day, followed by a burlesque play called the Satyr Play, and at the end the audience judged which tragedy had won. The cost of production was paid by wealthy citizens who were supposed to bear it as a civic duty. The vast majority of these comedies and tragedies have been lost, but there are still a representative number of playwrights whom the Greeks themselves considered the best: Aristophanes for comedy, and Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides for tragedy. After the 5th century B.C. tragedies continued to be written. However, the heyday of the genre ended, and with the conquest of Greece by Philip, father of Alexander the Great, the classical age of literature came to an end. A century after Aristophanes, a new playwright, Menander, produced comedies in Athens that changed the face of the stage. Menander's comedies drew their plot from domestic life. Gone are the political satires and lewd jokes of Aristophanic comedy; The "New Comedy" by Menander and his competitors was part of a new political climate in which writers had to be more careful about what they wrote. THE WRITERS OF HISTORY. Herodotus, whose stories were written around 425 B.C. were published was the first western historian to not only record what

the events happened; asked why they happened. His search for the reason Persia invaded Greece led him to examine the foundations of Persian imperialism. Thucydides, a young contemporary of Herodotus, chose to write about a more recent story: the great war between Athens and Sparta (431-404 BC), and left his work unfinished. His history was an accurate analysis of the war year by year and is an excellent study of wartime psychosis. Time was cruel to the successors of Herodotus and Thucydides, like Theopompus and Ephorus, who died in the 4th century BC. and the historians who wrote about Alexander the Great, whom we know only secondhand. In the second century B.C. CE Greece produced another great historian, Polybius, whose subject was the rise of Rome. THE HELLENISTIC AGE. In Hellenistic times, after the death of Alexander the Great, Alexander's generals founded kingdoms that consciously cultivated Greek culture. In Egypt, the Ptolemaic kings built a large library in their capital, Alexandria, and turned it into a center of literary culture. The writers and researchers who worked there wrote for a restricted audience, as Greeks were a minority in Egypt and Egyptians preferred their own native culture. The most important Alexandrian poet was Callimachus, who was much admired, although his surviving poetry seems dry to modern readers. Two other Alexandrians wrote more interesting material; Apollonius of Rhodes and Theocritus. Apollonius wrote an epic poem about Jason's quest for the Golden Fleece that reads more like a novel than a heroic epic. Although Theocritus wrote many types of poetry, his fame rests on his bucolic idylls: pastoral poetry full of nostalgia for the land and life there. The power of Greek culture even influenced mighty Rome, established in the 3rd century BC. conquered the prosperous Greek cities of southern Italy and Sicily. Contrary to most trends in warfare, in which the conquered culture is subsumed into that of the conqueror, Greek culture became dominant after Greece's defeat at Rome. The Latin poet Horace commented on this phenomenon by saying: "When Greece was conquered, it captured its rude conqueror." Latin literature begins with a Greek, Livius Andronicus. He came to Rome as a slave, was freed and became a teacher, then an actor and director. His translation of the Odyssey from Greek into Roman Latin marks the beginning of Latin literature. The Roman ruling class fully embraced Greek literature and soon there was an educated circle studying Greek and engaging with Greek culture. He

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The Romans valued Greek culture and language so much that early Roman historians wrote in Greek rather than Latin. The Beginnings of Latin Literature. The Romans did not give up their native language for a long time and quickly developed Latin literature. A younger contemporary of Livy Andronicus, Plautus translated and modified plays from the Greek "New Comedy" for Roman tastes. Ennius wrote an epic about the history of Rome by adapting Homeric meter to Latin. The tenacious Roman statesman Cato the Elder wrote in the 2nd century B.C. the first history of Rome in Latin. CE, and over the next century Latin literature flourished: Julius Caesar described his conquests in plain prose, Cicero was famous for both his oratorical and philosophical works that introduced Greek ideas into a Latin context, and the poetry of Catullus marked a new wave as poets broke away from the conventions of the past. The golden age of Latin literature came with the next generation under Emperor Augustus, whose culture minister Maecenas gathered a circle of poets around him. Besides his support of culture, he had an ulterior motive: Augustus wanted literature to serve the interests of his new regime. He wanted his achievements to be celebrated in poetry, and poet Virgil rose to the challenge. He did not write an epic about Augustus, but chose as his subject the Trojan hero Aeneas, whom Augustus described as his last ancestor. Although another Trojan hero, Hector, overshadows Aeneas in Homer's Iliad, it was Aeneas who survived the fall of Troy; Long before Virgil wrote his Aeneid, the Romans claimed him as the warrior who reached Latium and founded the royal line that included Rome's founder, Romulus. Weaving Greek and Latin mythology into the fabric of his great epic, Virgil added a new episode: a romance between Aeneas and Dido, queen of Carthage, which ended with Aeneas leaving Dido at the behest of Jupiter, who had appointed him the cornerstone of the empire.Roman. Latin literature experienced a boom in the 1st century B.C. a second great period in which writers such as the historian Tacitus, the biographer Suetonius, the satirist Juvenal and the novelist Petronius wrote important works. Literary production continued, but the spark of genius did not reappear until late in the empire, when the soldier and historian Ammianus Marcellinus and a number of other Latin and Greek authors continued to write in the classical tradition. At the same time, Christian literature flourished in both languages: hymns, church histories and chronicles, bringing us closer to the threshold of the Middle Ages. 122

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THE RISE OF THE CITY-STATE. The word "city-state" is a translation of the Greek word polis, from which we derive the word "politics". It was the political entity that had emerged from the ruins of the Mycenaean world and had a social and economic structure closer to Babylon and ancient Egypt than to the later world of classical Greece. The palaces that housed the Mycenaean Wanaktes, a word meaning "god-kings," were also bureaucratic centers where officials kept records and sent memos to lower-level officials. Among them were the chiefs of various peoples with the title pa-si-reu, a word developing from Classical Greek basileus, a king with a legitimate claim to the throne based on inheritance and the favor of the gods. As the Mycenaean civilization grew in the century of uprisings and migrations after 1200 B.C. was destroyed, the Wanakts and their palaces were swept away and with them the need to write disappeared. But the basileis with their small rulers fought back and once life in Greece after 1000 BC was BC safer again. C. these small baronies emerged as autonomous political entities. In the halls of these petty kings, bards invented tales of the heroes that would become the Iliad and the Odyssey. THE WORLD OF HOMERS. Homer's reputation as Greece's greatest epic poet is based on two famous works attributed to him: the Iliad and the Odyssey, which focus on a legendary war between Greece and Troy known as the "Trojan War" and its aftermath. Although these works have been studied for centuries up to modern times, the details of Homer's life are incomplete at best. Greek sculptors made portraits of him, easily recognizable by his blind eyes and beetle-like forehead, but these are fanciful creations and not a true representation of his appearance. Several cities claimed to be his home. The two with the best claims were Chios, one of the Dodecanese islands off the Turkish coast, and Izmir, an important Greek settlement on the west coast of Asia Minor. Both were Ionian cities founded during Greece's "Dark Ages" by refugees displaced by a wave of immigration to the Peloponnese after the collapse of the Mycenaean world. Homer's Greek dialect is mainly Ionian, although his Greek was not street Greek; was "epic Greek", the language

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used by epic poets. We do not know exactly when he lived. It is clear from the Iliad and the Odyssey that the Trojan War took place long before they were written, at a time when humans were more powerful than in the world today. However, once the Iliad and the Odyssey were written, it follows that Homer could write or dictate to someone who could. We must therefore date it after the Greeks borrowed the North Semitic alphabet from the Phoenicians and adapted it for their own use by adding vowels that were absent from the Phoenician alphabet. When the adaptation took place is hotly debated, but the general consensus dates it not long after 800 BC. Thus, a Homer who could write could have written as early as the first half of the eighth century B.C.E. lived, but hardly earlier. This last date is indicated by the so-called terminus ante quem, a fragment of a vase found on the island of Ischia off the coast of Naples. A verse inscription on the vase fragment refers to a cup of the hero Nestor described in the Iliad, and the vase dates to before 700 BC. Therefore the epic must have been written before this vase was made. This date allows scholars to date between 725 and 675 BC. point out. Like when the Iliad and the Odyssey were written. REPRESENTATION OF THE EPIC POET. Homer's poems were composed at a time when oral bards sang poems to the accompaniment of the lyre, the epic being composed as music in half and quarter notes; A long syllable is a half note and a short syllable is a quarter note. The accented accents found in medieval and modern poetry were not present in this poetry, which was written for singing, but there were tonal accents; almost every word had an accented pitch where the voice was raised or lowered. Music from the lyre, a stringed instrument that the bard played while singing, provided a melodic background. While she sang, dancers could perform to the music, but both music and dance were subordinate to the spoken word. Homer's poems must have started as songs sung by bards, but eventually they turned to writing. The students learned them and memorized parts of them. They were recited at religious festivals. They had a similar impact on the language of Greece as the 1611 English translation of the King James Bible had on the English language. The Homeric poems not only mark the beginning of Greek literature; His influence can be felt in all aspects of Greek culture. THE WAR OF TROY. The legend of the Trojan War probably has a historical basis, as there is archaeological evidence dating back to around 1250 BC. a fortified city

met a violent end at what Greek tradition called Troy. So once upon a time there was a war that ended with the conquest of Troy, but the story told in Homer's account of the Trojan War is imaginative and involves the gods. Indeed, the conflict with the gods begins when a beauty pageant between the goddesses Athena, Hera and Aphrodite takes an ugly turn. After choosing a mortal Trojan prince named Paris to judge who is the fairest, each goddess attempts to bribe the young man into choosing them, with Paris choosing Aphrodite on her promise to give him the most beautiful woman in the world . Unfortunately, the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen, is already the wife of a Spartan (Greek) king named Menelaus, so Troy's kidnapping of Paris prompts the Greeks to assemble a fleet led by one of the greatest kings to pursue her of the world Greece, Agamemnon. The bloody conflict in Troy lasts ten years and finally ends when the Greeks trick the Trojans into opening the city gates to a large wooden horse that hides the Greek warriors inside. These warriors then open the gates to the rest of the Greek army, allowing for the sack of Troy. Trojan warriors were killed and women sold into slavery, although there were myths that some Trojans escaped; Some aristocratic Roman families claimed descent from Trojan heroes. THE NOSTOI. The homecoming of the Greek victors after the war spawned a number of other myths known as nostoi, the Greek word for "homecoming". The most famous Nostos was the story of Odysseus trying for ten years to reach his island of Ithaca, the subject of Homer's Odyssey. The Trojan War left a deep mark on the Greek imagination, perhaps because the date is 1250 BC. is more or less correct: It was the last great adventure of the Greek Bronze Age before the fall of the Mycenaean civilization. Myths about her were elaborated and re-elaborated by Greek poets and playwrights. Not only the Trojan War itself, but also nostoi provided the raw material for the earliest Greek literature in Greece, and from Greece reports of the Trojan War reached Rome, where the Iulii family, which produced Julius Caesar, claimed the Trojan hero Aeneas descent. Thus, the Trojan War would contribute to the self-definition of both the Greeks and the Romans. THE ILIAD. One of the reasons the Iliad has stood the test of time is that it is so much more than a story about war. In epic format, Homer offers vivid psychological portraits of the heroes on both sides of the conflict. At the center of the story is the character of Achilles

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Leader of the Myrmidons and the greatest warrior on the Greek side. He is virtually invincible on the battlefield because his immersion in the River Styx as a baby prevents him from injuring any part of his body except his heel, the only part the water didn't touch. He is the quintessential doomed hero, knowing that death awaits him if he keeps fighting in Troy, but is consumed by his desire for glory in battle. His status as Greece's greatest warrior puts him at odds with the army's leader, Agamemnon, and when the two clash over the distribution of the spoils of war, Achilles allows insulting his ego to negate his duty in battle, and he refuses. to fight against the Trojans. His decision has serious consequences both for him personally and for the cause of the Greek military. Without Achilles in battle, the tide of the war turns in favor of the Trojans, and several key leaders on the Greek side are wounded, including Agamemnon, Menelaus, and Odysseus. Although Achilles does not return to battle, he lends his armor to his friend Patroclus and allows him to lead the Myrmidons into battle, where Patroclus is killed by the Trojan hero Hector. Learning of Patroclus' death, Achilles returns to the battle and avenges Patroclus' death by killing Hector. Then he buries his friend with magnificent, almost barbaric burial rites. Though Achilles is portrayed as a relentless warrior in battle, Homer humanizes him with a gesture of compassion when Hector's father, aged King Priam, visits Achilles under cover of night to recover his son's body. Achilles feels sorry for Priam and his own father, Peleus, as his mother has warned him that if he returns to battle, his own death will soon follow Hector's. He accepts the ransom and sends Priam back safely to Troy and the Iliad ends with Hector's funeral. Throughout the story, Homer leaves no doubt that Greek heroes make better warriors than Trojans, and yet he has a surprising sympathy for Troy. The most likeable character in the story is the Trojan hero Hector. He's a great warrior, but he doesn't love war. He fights to defend Troy, but he knows that Troy is doomed and that his wife and child face a dangerous future. Hector's last farewell to them is the most moving passage in the Iliad. He is hopelessly defeated when he meets Achilles in their final duel; However, his honor as a warrior prevents him from retreating behind the city walls. This determination to fight in the face of certain death is part of an overarching theme of battle glory that runs throughout the epic. Characters are judged on their fighting prowess and bravery, with those who keep fighting despite knowing the harsh fate that awaits them (like Hector and Achilles) receiving the most credit. 124

THE ODYSSEY. The Odyssey is the story of one of the Greek heroes in Troy, Odysseus, trying to return home from war. A series of misfortunes turns the journey into a ten-year ordeal, and a combination of luck and cunning saves him from several perilous situations. A wandering story that spans many years is not easy to tell as it can fall into a long chronological account. To get around this, Homer uses a "flashback" technique, in which Odysseus retells most of his own story as a series of episodes, each episode telling of a new danger he encountered on his journey. At the beginning of the story, Odysseus nears the end of his journey as he tells his story to an audience of Phaeacians who have granted him temporary refuge in their land on his way home. Their stories of encounters with fantastic creatures and their experiences in foreign lands amaze them. Between his adventures he outwitted the one-eyed giant Polyphemus (the Cyclops); he sailed between the two monsters Scylla and Charybdis; subdued the witch goddess Circe; and was the captive lover of the nymph Calypso for seven years. Although he had sailed from Troy with a fleet of twelve ships, he arrived alone at Ithaca, his homeland. Each new adventure resulted in the loss of the crew. In the land of the lotus eaters, some ate the fruit of the lotus plant, causing them to forget their homeland, and Odysseus had to force them back onto their ships. Others were eaten by the giant cyclops while he was being held captive in his cave. The cannibalistic Lestrygonians destroyed all their ships except Odysseus's own ship. The witch Circe turned Odysseus' men into pigs, and Odysseus saved them only with the help of the god Hermes. Finally, Odysseus was again caught in a storm. Zeus struck his ship with lightning and threw his men overboard, and only Odysseus survived, clinging to the wreckage and wandering the sea for nine days until he reached the island of Calypso. Moved by his story, the Phaeacians take him back to his kingdom of Ithaca, where Odysseus discovers that ambitious suitors have invaded his villa for the hand of his wife Penelope. Although Odysseus' long absence has led many to believe he is dead, Penelope has managed to keep her suitors at bay through a clever ruse. He promises to choose a husband after weaving a shroud for Odysseus' father Laertes, but each night he undoes the previous day's work. The suitors eventually discover the deception and increase the pressure on her to choose one of them. At this time, Odysseus returns home disguised as a beggar. No longer able to use the shroud as an excuse to postpone the wedding, Penelope presents the suitors with a new test: she announces that she will choose the husband who wins an archery competition with Odysseus' bow. Your choice will fall

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on the one who can bend the great bow and shoot an arrow through twelve axes. None of the suitors can draw a bow, let alone shoot an arrow with it, but Odysseus pulls off the feat with ease, killing all the suitors. However, Penelope is still not entirely convinced that Odysseus is her long-lost husband, and she puts him through one final test: she orders a servant to move the double bed out of the room so that Odysseus can sleep on it. Only Ulisses and Penelope know that the order is impossible to carry out as the bed is anchored to a tree stump; When Odysseus reveals that he knows the secret of the bed, Penelope knows he is her husband. Odysseus regained his kingdom. Cunning about strength. While much of the Iliad focuses on the combat prowess of warriors, the Odyssey elevates cunning to brute strength. Over and over again, Odysseus is portrayed as a cunning man who often escapes the perilous passages of his journey by using his wits to overcome the superior strength of his opponents. On more than one occasion, she disguises or masks her identity to assert herself, as was the case in her confrontation with her suitors. The encounter with the Cyclops is a particularly good example of Odysseus using his wits to overcome a seemingly impossible situation. Odysseus and his men are trapped in the cave of the cyclops Polyphemus, a giant one-eyed cannibal shepherd who was the son of the sea god Poseidon. They face certain death as only Polyphemus can push back the rock blocking the cave entrance, which he only does to let his sheep out of the cave each morning and bring them back to safety each night. . Physically, Odysseus is powerless, but he uses his cunning to get the giant drunk. When Polyphemus asks Odysseus his name, Odysseus replies that his name is "Nobody". After the giant falls into a drunken slumber, the men gouge his eye out with a sharpened stick; He yells at the other Cyclopes for help, but they suspect a god must have caused his misfortune when he tells them that "Nobody" ("No man") plucked out his eye. Since Polyphemus is outnumbered by his blindness, Odysseus and his men escape the cave by tying themselves to the bellies of Polyphemus' sheep when he releases them in the morning. The blind Cyclops runs his hand down the sheep's backs to make sure no one is leading them to freedom, but fails to notice the men below. As Odysseus departs in his ship, he cannot resist calling the Cyclops his true name and allows the giant to pray to his father Poseidon for vengeance on Odysseus. Poseidon sends a storm to throw the ships off course and

Odysseus is cursed: he doesn't come home, or if he does, he comes very late, alone and has problems at home. TEMPTATION AND RESISTANCE. Odysseus' inability to resist revealing his identity to the Cyclops is an example of another dominant theme in the play: the danger of temptation. Odysseus' pride in having outwitted the cyclops leads him to tell the cyclops his name, despite warnings from his men. Indeed, when Odysseus found the Cyclops' cave, his men urged him to steal some cheese and lamb and return to their ships, but Odysseus is seduced by thirst for knowledge: he wants to know who owns this cave and waits. so that the cyclopes return home. In the land of the lotus eaters, the temptation is great to give up and forget the purpose of returning home, and Odysseus remains determined to return no matter how much he must endure: he forces his men to return to their ships. As Odysseus navigates the reefs where half-woman, half-bird sirens sang their enticing songs and lured sailors to their deaths on the rocks, he saves his men from temptation by commanding them to cover their ears while he himself is tempted by her. Inquisitive, he tied himself to the mast, which enabled him to hear the melody of the sirens and survive. After the Cyclops Incident, Odysseus is given a magic pouch by Aeolus, lord of the winds, which traps all winds except the one that will bring his ships home safely, forbidding his men to open it. Ithaca is already in sight when the crew, suspecting Odysseus is hiding treasure in a bag from them, disobey orders and are tempted to open the bag as Odysseus falls asleep. The winds ease and a storm brings Odysseus back to the land of Aeolus, who angrily refuses to give him another sack. On the island of the sun god Hyperion, the men are solemnly warned by Odysseus not to touch Hyperion's cattle, but hunger drives them and they are tempted to kill some of them when Odysseus is gone. Hyperion, the sun god, is so enraged that he threatens to stop shining in the sky unless Zeus avenges him, and Zeus agrees to destroy Odysseus' ship with a bolt of lightning. Only Odysseus perseveres and never gives up on his goal of returning home. THE EPIC CYCLE. There were also other epics that completed the story of the Trojan War. One, entitled Cypria, described Paris kidnapping Menelaus' wife Helen and taking her to Troy. It seems to have been composed almost in the Iliad and was wrongly attributed to Homer by some Greeks. Another, titled Aethiopis, related how an Ethiopian king named Memnon came to help Troy and was killed by Achilles.

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who in turn died from an arrow wound to his vulnerable heel. The Little Iliad and The Sack of Troy tell how Troy fell, and there is a group of poems called Nostoi (The Return) that tell of the experiences of heroes other than Odysseus on his journey home from Troy. These poems survived into the 2nd century AD, still being quoted by later authors, but they seem to have been lost in the upheavals of the 3rd century AD. There were also epics that dealt with subjects other than Troy. One told the story of Oedipus of Thebes who killed his father and married his mother, and there were several poems about Heracles. There were many other epics besides the Iliad and the Odyssey, but these two poems were by far the most popular and were most often recited on religious holidays. Another poem, that of the daisies, also deserves mention, for even an astute critic like Aristotle thought it was written by Homer. It was an epic mockery, a burlesque tale of the misfortune of a fool named Margites. A surviving fragment tells of his wedding-night misadventures, and if Homer wrote it, he must have used it to make his audience laugh after they had had enough of the Trojan legends. A brief mock epic, The Battle of the Frogs and Mice, survives, describing in heroic style a battle between a corps of frogs and a regiment of mice. The banquet halls of the aristocrats in Greece's first city-states clearly reveled in their comic moments. SOURCES

Charles R. Beye, Ancient Epic Poetry (Ithaca, NY; Londres, Inglaterra: Cornell University Press, 1993). Markieren Sie Edwards, Homero; Poeta da Ilíada (Baltimore; Londres, Inglaterra: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). Moses Finley, O Mundo de Odisseu. 2ª Umdrehung. Ausgabe (Harmondsworth, Inglaterra: Penguin Books, 1979). Jasper Griffin, Homer (Bristol, Inglaterra: Bristol Classical Press, 2001). GS Kirk, The Songs of Homer (Cambridge, Inglaterra: Cambridge University Press, 1962). Joachim Latacz, Homer; Seine Kunst und seine Welt (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996). JV Luce, Homer und das heroische Zeitalter (Londres, Inglaterra: Thames and Hudson, 1975). MS Silk, Homer: The Ilias (Cambridge, Inglaterra: Cambridge University Press, 1987). George Steiner und Robert Fagles, Hrsg., Homer: A Collection of Critical Essays (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962). Michael Wood, Em Busca da Guerra de Tróia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998). 126

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HESIOD. It is common to speak of Homer and Hesiod at the same time, but in fact the two poets lived in different worlds and produced markedly different poetry. Both belonged to the 8th century BC. BC, but Hesiod reflected a different lifestyle. He grew up in the poor town of Ascra in Boeotia, a district in central Greece bordering Athenian territory. The Athenians thought the Boeotians were pretty stupid, and Boeotia was a cultural hinterland compared to Athens. Despite this reputation, Boeotian poets were composing poems on more realistic subjects at the same time as Ionian bards were singing heroic ballads about the Trojan War. There must have been a great number of poets, but of their works only three poems attributed to Hesiod survive: the Theogony, the Works, and the Days, and a rather bad piece entitled The Shield of Hercules, to which only few believe it really is TRUE. .a composition by Hesiod. . THEOGONY. The Theogony, or The Generations of the Gods, is the first attempt by a Greek to write a systematic theology. Hesiod begins by invoking the nine muses who taught him the art of poetry while tending his flock on Mount Helicon. The Muses, the daughters of Zeus who could speak the truth if they chose, inspired him to sing of "the things that are to come and the things that have gone before." "Hail, daughters of Zeus! Give me a sweet song to celebrate the holy race of the gods who live forever, children of starry sky and earth, dark night and salty sea." Dorothea Wender, trans., Hesiod and Theognis (Penguin Classics): 26 .

Hesiod began with Chaos, the formless matter that was the most primitive state of the universe, from which emerged Earth and Tartarus, Night, and Erebus, who was a mythical being in Theogony. Earth gave birth to Uranus (Heaven), and from the sexual union of Earth and Heaven came the race of the Titans. The titan Kronos, with the tacit consent of Mother Earth, castrated the sky and pushed it into the sky. But Kronos feared that his children would overthrow him as he had overthrown their father, and he devoured the children his wife Rhea bore. However, Rhea tricked him by giving him a rolled up stone to swallow instead of her last child. When this child who was Zeus reached adulthood, he overthrew Kronos and forced him to vomit the children he had swallowed. So the generation of Zeus took over.

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THE ORIENTAL CONNECTION. It is difficult to tell whether Hesiod's theogony was repeating traditional wisdom about the gods or whether it sprang from his own fertile brain. Certainly the Middle East had creation stories before Hesiod wrote; one that Hesiod perhaps knew second- or third-hand was the Babylonian creation epic Enuma Elis, of which over 900 verses survive. The story of how Kronos castrated Uranus has a parallel in the myths of the Hittites, whose empire ruled Asia Minor until the attacks and invasions that began the Mycenaean civilization after 1200 BC. ended. it also destroyed him; The Hittites, in turn, borrowed it from a people called the Hurrians, pre-Semitic inhabitants of Syria. Hittite saga relates that Kumarbi, the equivalent of Kronos, bit off the genitals of the sky god Anu. Folktale motifs can travel from one culture to another with surprising ease, but they change along their journey, and by the time Near Eastern creation myths reached Boeotia they had taken on a different shape. However, the cultural influence of the Middle East was felt even in Hesiod's small, isolated community. In Works and Days he retells the Middle Eastern myth of the ages of man, but with a twist consistent with common Greek wisdom: the Eastern version has four ages, corresponding to the four metals, gold, silver, bronze, and iron. but Hesiod adds a fifth age before the Iron Age - the Heroic Age - thus creating a place in human history for the heroes who, as all Greeks knew, lived before the present age. It seems unlikely that Hesiod was the first Greek to use Middle Eastern myths, since Greek contacts with Syria date back to Mycenaean times. Much of the theology of the theogony, however, was Hesiod's own creation. THE WORKS AND THE DAYS. In Hesiod's second poem we hear the real voice of a peasant. Hesiod's father had left Cime Aeolia fleeing poverty and had come to the city of Askra near Mount Helicon, which Hesiod described as "harsh in winter, uncomfortable in summer, not very good in any season". Hesiod's brother Perses tricked Hesiod into sharing their father's inheritance and then squandered his share. He then tried underhanded means to get more of his brother's share, bribing the corrupt aristocrats who administered justice in the city-states. Works and Days is Hesiod's advice to Perses. It tells him how to farm, when to get married, what kind of slaves to have, what days to be lucky, etc. The sixth day of the month, for example, wasn't a lucky time to give birth to girls, but it was good day to castrate goats and lambs and give birth to cubs, although cubs born on this day are prone to lying and flattery. . . Other warnings included always washing your hands before serving libations.

to the gods, and another to wash his hands in a stream before crossing it. This "wisdom literature" is typical of ancient Egypt, but Hesiod's advice is rooted in Boeotian soil. He had a keen sense of justice and had a message for dishonest judges: Gentlemen, heed this punishment. The immortal gods are never far away; They point to corrupt judges who crush their fellow men and fear no gods, three times ten thousand guardians of men, immortals, roam the fertile land for Zeus, shrouded in mist, they visit all lands and watch over trials and crimes, one of which is she the maiden born of Zeus, justice worshiped by all the gods of Olympus. Dorothea Wender, trans., Hesiod and Theognis (Penguin Classics): 66–67.

Hesiod's suggestion that Zeus is the enforcer of fair play differs from Homer's amoral version of the god. CORINA. Boeotia continued to produce poets after Hesiod, although none wrote in the epic tradition. Nearly two centuries after Hesiod, one of the greatest Greek poets, Pindar, was born there near Thebes, the capital of Boeotia. An older contemporary of Pindar, a poet named Corinna, wrote lyrical narrative poems on Boeotian themes for a circle of friends. A papyrus fragment from Egypt preserves essential remains of two of his poems. In one she describes a singing contest between Mt. Helicon, or more specifically, the god Helicon, and Mt. Zitheron. Helicon was Hesiod's mountain, where the Muses appeared to him and taught him to sing, and Mt. Cithaeron was nearer the Tanagra polis than Corinna. The gods will judge whether Hesiod's Helicon or Corinna's Cithaeron sang the better poem. The muses commanded the higher gods to secretly deposit their ballot papers in the gleaming golden urns. The gods rose together. Cithaeron won the most votes. Presently Hermes announced to him with a great shriek how he had obtained the desired success, and the gods blessed with garlands crowned him, so that his heart rejoiced. Richmond Lattimore, Greek Letters (University of Chicago Press): 52.

Mount Helicon was a poor loser. The poem may have been Corinna's declaration of independence from the Hesiodic school of epic poetry.

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FUENTES

J. P. Barron und P. E. Easterling, „Hesiod“, in: The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. Ed. P. E. Easterling und B. M. W. Knox (Cambridge, Inglaterra: Cambridge University Press, 1981): 92–105. Robert Lamberton, Hesiod (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1988). Dorothea Wender, Hesiod und Theognis (Harmondsworth, Inglaterra: Penguin Books, 1973).

ALTER

VON

LYRIC

THE GREEK WORLD IN TRANSITION. In the years after 700 B.C. The Greek world experienced social and economic changes. The polis or city-states have now fully emerged from the so-called "dark ages" that followed the collapse of Mycenaean civilization. They started sending out colonies; Around 770 BC C., the main cities of the island of Euboea, Eretria and Chalkis, established a trading post on the island of Ischia off the coast of Naples. Some twenty years later, Chalcis - his partnership with Eretria dissolved in hostility - founded a colony in mainland Italy at Cumae. It was the first of a series of colonies, and over the next two and a half centuries Greek settlements, each a budding city-state, sprang up in Italy, Sicily, southern France, northeastern Spain, and the northern Aegean on the Black Sea coast. The east coast of the Mediterranean and Egypt were not open to colonization, but even there the Greeks established a trading post at al-Mina in modern Lebanon; in Egypt, the pharaohs of the 26th dynasty allowed them to establish a post at Naukratis at the mouth of the Nile. Egyptian culture came to the Greeks as a revelation; in the middle of the 7th century B.C. C. Greek sculptors carved nude male figures in poses borrowed from Egyptian sculpture. In Corinthian workshops, potters made vases with oriental motifs borrowed from Asian goldsmiths, and their fine Proto-Corinthian pottery found export markets throughout the eastern Mediterranean, as well as in Italy and Sicily. The polis began building independent temples; The oldest have a semi-circular apse or wall at the end, but in the second half of the 7th century B.C. CE, the Greek Temple canonical blueprint was born. This was an era of revolution in which the rule of the "lords," whose wrongs Hesiod had attacked, was swept away and replaced by dictatorships, which the Greeks called "tyrannies." In this context, the era of poetry arose. DEFINITION OF LYRICAL POETRY. Poetry is poetry sung on the lyre, but that in itself was not a new development.

Development, since the epic poetry also had a lyre accompaniment. The great lyric poets, beginning with Archilochus, belong to the exuberant seventh and sixth centuries as Greece transitioned from the "dark ages" into the great classical period of Greek culture. Lyrical poetry is commonly divided into three types of poetry: melish, elegiac, and iambic. Its borders are blurred. "Melic" means "for music" and can include anything from party songs to choral cantatas. Elegies were also sung, but they are defined by their meter, the elegiac couplet. Though it uses an iambic meter, poetry classified as iambic relates more to its subject matter, which is ridiculous, abusive, or at times risqué. Not all lyrics were sung to the music of the lyre. Mimnermus from colophon was accompanied by a girl playing the aulos, a distant ancestor of the oboe. Choral cantatas could be accompanied by both aulos and lyres, of which there were several models. THE POETS OF WAR. It is believed that elegiac poetry more commonly expresses feelings such as love or pain, but there was a group of poets who used the elegiac couplet for patriotic themes. 7th century BC CE was not a time of peace in the Greek world. In the so-called "Dark Ages" that followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization, Greeks migrated to the west coast of Asia Minor and nearby islands and established settlements there that prospered but were always threatened by non-Greeks. in the interior of Asia Minor. An elegiac poet who used his talent to urge the Greeks to defend themselves was Callinus of Ephesus. Ephesus was one of the twelve cities of Ionia, founded by Greeks speaking the Ionian dialect who fled the ruins of the Mycenaean world first to Athens and then from Athens across the Aegean to Asia Minor. Ephesus was at the forefront of Greek cultural development from the early to mid-7th century. However, it was a time of war. Anatolia, the highlands of Central Asia, was under attack from nomadic immigrants, and Callinus' only surviving elegy is an appeal for courage in battle. How long will you be inactive? When are you going to loosen up, young people? Aren't you so ashamed, our neighbors? TYRTAEUS, THE POET OF THE SPANISH WAR. A generation later, in Sparta across the Aegean, Tyrtaeus used elegiac poetry for a similar purpose. The Spartan state had been founded by Dorian immigrants, the last immigrants to arrive in Greece after the collapse of the Mycenaean world. They spoke their own dialect of Greek, although Doric is not much closer to Ionian Greek than Spanish is to Italian. Spartan immigrants conquered and reduced the natives of the Eurotas river valley

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the helots, servants who worked the land and gave half of the harvest to their masters. Sparta prospered and its growing population of Spartans, Sparta's landowning class, clamored for more property. To gain more land, Sparta conquered its western neighbor Messenia in the early 7th century and made the Messenians its helots. But at the end of the 7th century the Messenians revolted. The poems of Tyrtaeus awakened the Spartan determination to defeat them. He recalled how Sparta conquered Messenia in the first place and reminded his listeners of the glory of the battle. …our ruler Theopompus, whom the gods loved, by whom we conquered the vast dancing fields of Messene, Messene good for plowing and good for planting to bear fruit. They fought for nineteen years to win it. ...because it's okay to die at the front, a brave man fighting for your homeland, and the most painful fate is to leave your city and its fertile lands to suffer the life of a beggar. ML West, trans., Greek Lyric Poetry (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1993): 23.

MINNERMO IN DEFENSE OF SMYRNA. The elegiac poet Mimnermus of Smyrna also wrote war poetry. Smyrna was one of the first Greek settlements in Asia Minor, but was destroyed around 600 BC. attacked by the neighboring Lydian Empire. She lost the battle and was destroyed. Mimnermus' patriotic efforts were in vain. ARCHILOCH. The Greeks themselves ranked Archilochus among the greatest poets of ancient Greece, along with Homer and Hesiod, but unfortunately few of his poems survive as evidence of his genius. He was the illegitimate son of a nobleman from Paros (an island in the Aegean Sea) and a Thracian slave. He made his living as a mercenary, but he did not respect the soldier's code of honor. In one of his poems he openly confessed his cowardice in battle with a Thracian tribe called Saiian: Some Saiians use my splendid shield: I had to leave it in a forest, but I saved my skin. Well, I don't care. I'll get another one just as good. ML West, trans., Greek Lyric Poetry (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1993): 14.

Archilochus was famous for the insults he used to attack his enemies, particularly Lycambes, who had two daughters, one of whom, Neobule, was the object of Archilochus' lust.

The poet Sappho from Lesvos.

THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.

I wish I had had the same opportunity to touch Neobule the hard worker and press belly to belly and thigh to thigh. ...ML West, Greek Lyric Poetry, (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1993): 6.

Lycambes did not envision Archilochus as a son-in-law, and the verse of Archilochus mocked him and his two daughters so cruelly that, according to legend, they hanged themselves. Much of his surviving poetry reflects his observations of current events: angry attacks on his enemies, jokes with friends, sad lyrics for men lost at sea, contempt for dandies. In his description of a good soldier: "A small, calf-shaped fellow / is my ideal, full of courage and firm on his stakes", he likes to describe himself. THE CORAL LYRICS. Choral lyric was poetry sung by choirs who danced as they sang, usually accompanied by a musician. Sparta, for all its emphasis on militarism in the seventh century B.C. E.C., was also a center for music and dance. The first great composer and virtuoso of the type of lyre known as the zither, Terpander of Lesvos, worked there, as did Alcman, who wrote choral works sung by girls' choirs. A long fragment of a choral song survives, preserved on a fragment of papyrus found in Egypt. It is a parthenion, a song sung by girls to the accompaniment of

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A LOVE POEM BY SAPPHO INTRODUCTION:

Sappho, who lived in the town of Mytilene on Lesvos, was famous for her short lyrics, written in well-articulated stanzas. The poem that follows expresses Sappho's desire for a girl to leave her family to marry. It is particularly famous for its open expression of love from one woman to another and for its existence in both the original Greek and the Latin translation by the Roman poet Catullus.

SOURCE: Sappho of Lesbos, "Invocation to Aphrodite," in Greek letters. 2nd ed. Trans. Richmond Lattimore (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960): 39-40.

aulos - this is sung by a choir of ten. Choral poetry was also popular in the Greek cities of Sicily and southern Italy, where the first prominent poet whose name we know was Esthesichorus, who came from Himera, not far from present-day Palermo. The most famous composer of choral poetry was Sappho of Lesvos, who is often categorized as a melodic poet because her songs express personal feelings. Apparently, a group of girls and unmarried women met Sappho regularly at a school, the "House of the Disciples of the Muses", as Sappho called it in a surviving fragment of her poetry, may have been their own home. sang and learned to play musical instruments. Sometimes they sang publicly at weddings and religious ceremonies; his student group was called thiasos, which means "religious association". Safo was a music teacher and choreographer, and her choruses often expressed her personal feelings. 130

POETRY AS A PERSONAL VOICE. Poetry gave voice to the personal emotions of lyric poets and their circles, usually related to love, politics, and patriotism. For Sappho of Lesbos, love was an all-consuming passion. She expressed her affection for some of the girls she taught with an intensity that made "lesbian" synonymous with women who are gay lovers, although Sappho herself was married and had a daughter. Love between young men and older married men was accepted in Greek society, and Sappho simply represented the other side of the coin, expressing romantic bonds between women. The world of his contemporary Alkaios of Lesbos was markedly different. He lived on Lesvos during a period of civil war, particularly in the main polis of Mytilene, where tyrants challenged the rule of the aristocrats and the aristocrats fought back. Alcaeus used to be best known for his political songs, his Stasiotika, as they were called in Greek for "civil dispute", stasis. They were songs of political commitment. Aristocrats formed political societies to defend their interests and sang songs like Alceu's over meals together. In the last century, however, papyri containing poems that show another side of Alceus' genius have been found in the sands of Egypt. He also wrote hymns to the gods, love poems and poems on mythological subjects. The poet's individual voice is heard in the works of Sappho and Alcaeus, but Mimnermus of Smyrna, whose war poems have already been mentioned, also deserves a second mention as a poet of love. The publishers of the great library in Alexandria in Hellenistic times made an anthology of his poetry entitled Nanno, after the name of a courtesan. Mimnermus too looked anxiously at death; Fear of the ills of old age was another of his favorite subjects. POETRY IN THE SERVICE OF POLITICS. The age of prose had not yet arrived, and when men expressed their political opinions in writing they used poetry to recite at public meetings. A political poet belonging to the Megaran polis was Theognis. Megara is situated between Corinth to the south and Athens to the north and in the last decades of the 7th century B.C. In BC, the winds of change that toppled aristocratic governments elsewhere also swept through Megara. Theognis was an aristocrat who apparently lost his country and went into exile. His poetry reflects a bitter cynicism about the state of society in which good people can sink into poverty. Some of his elegies are addressed to a friend named Cyrnus, and not all are political: some offer advice, some reflect friends' infidelities, and some are love poems. However, the

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The surviving literature attributed to Theognis was not entirely written by him and projects a blurry image of Theognis himself. In one political poem attributed to him he says that no country in the world loves a tyrant, and in another non-political poem that he only interested in upper-class life and intellectual culture, for which he wants to continue to enjoy life. .lyre and dance and music. The social pressures that threatened the political power of Megaran's landed aristocrats were also felt in its larger neighbor, the city-state of Athens. There, too, rival political factions recognized the danger of tyranny without reform and sought to avoid it. They turned to Solon, a poet, merchant and aristocrat by descent if not political inclination, and by consensus he was killed in 594–593 BC. Sole ruler or "archon" of Athens for one year. with the mandate to bring about political and economic changes. He used poetry to defend his reforms, which were an attempt to find a middle ground between the far left and the far right. He was not a great poet and he was not the creator of Athenian democracy, but two centuries later the Athenians, especially those who followed conservative politics, considered him the founder of an ideal constitution. THE AGE OF TYRANS. The Age of Tyrants in archaic Greece was a transitional period between the first polis ruled by aristocrats, whose power was based on land ownership and long pedigrees, and the classical polis, in which government was on a broader basis. Tyrants - in the modern world they would be called dictators - took power by force and sometimes passed it down to their children and even grandchildren, and while tyrannies have given them a bad name, not all of them were bad. Some tyrants were patrons of poetry. A Corinthian tyrant, Periander (reigned ca. 625-585 BC), offered helpful hospitality to a famous lyric poet, Arion, but nothing of his work survives. Across the Aegean, at Samos, the tyrant Polycrates supported Ibycus of Rhegium, modern Reggio at the tip of Italy, until his overthrow by the Persians in 522 BC. Ibycus' choral texts continued the tradition of Stesichorus, but he was equally famous for his love poems. Anacreon, possibly Polycrates' music teacher, also wrote well-crafted poetry: exquisite songs about the joys of wine and love. When Polycrates fell, Anacreon, along with Ibycus, moved to Athens, where Hipparchus, the younger brother of the tyrant Hippias, gathered several poets. Hippias was born in 510 BC. expelled from Athens in 300 BC, and when the age of tyrants came to an end, so did his promotion of literature. A poet, Simonides of Keos, of the court of Hipparchus,

he passed into the modern age, when professional poets sold their services and earned their living as literary entrepreneurs. He had a nephew named Bacchylides, who was as enterprising as his uncle, though lacking in poetic inspiration. SOURCES

William Barnstone, Greek Poetry (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1967). C. M. Bowra, Greek Poetry. From Alcman to Simonides. 2nd ed. (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1961). AR Burn, The Lyric Age of Greece (London, England: Arnold, 1960). Paul Allen Miller, Lyrical Texts and Lyrical Consciousness; The Birth of a Genre from Archaic Greece to Augustan Rome (London, England; New York: Routledge, 1994). David D. Mulroy, trans., Early Greek Poetry (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). D.L. Page, Sappho and Alcaeus: An Introduction to the Study of Early Lesbian Poetry (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1955). ML West, trans., Greek Lyric Poetry (Oxford, England; New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).

P. POLISH

FOR

SET

THE END OF ARCHAIC GREECE. The Persian Wars 490-479 BC marked the end of the archaic era. The Persian Empire slowly advanced westward. Shortly after 546 BC he conquered Greek cities on the west coast of Asia Minor. 513 BC CE King Darius led a Persian army across the Bosphorus into Europe and conquered Thrace, the region south of the Danube. But what drew Persia's attention to mainland Greece was the Ionian Rebellion, a revolt of Greek cities on the coast of Asia Minor and nearby islands that began in the Ionian city of Miletus in the year 500 and spread across the coast to Cyprus. Athens sent and then withdrew aid to the rebels during the first year of the revolt, but its years of intervention was enough to arouse Persian displeasure. A Persian expeditionary force landed in 490 BC. on the plain of Marathon north of Athens. C., with the intention of taking Athens and establishing a Persian bridgehead in Greece. But in a battle that gave Athens a new sense of pride and accomplishment, the Athenian citizen army defeated the Persian force. Ten years later the Persians attacked again, this time with a large land and sea force, and again Athens' contribution to the alliance of Greek states sworn to resist Persia was crucial, as Athens raised an army in later years. Marathon and the

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The decisive battle that stopped the Persian attack was a naval victory fought on the island of Salamis in full view of Athens. Athens emerged from the Persian War as a center of power in the Greek world, strong enough to challenge the former dominant power, Sparta. Over the next half century it acquired an empire and became the cultural center of Greece. The Persian War marked the beginning of the Classic period, considered to be the time when Greek cultural achievements reached their peak, and Athens led the way. POETS OF THE PERSIAN WAR. The poets Simonides, Pindar and Bacchylides had one thing in common: their lives were divided in two by the Persian Wars. This fact places them in the transitional period between Archaic and Classical periods. Simonides was born early enough to enjoy the patronage of Hipparchus, brother of Hippias, the tyrant of Athens. Hipparchus was born in 514 BC. murdered. Four years later Hippias was banished to the court of the Persian king Darius. Simonides wrote the epitaph for the 300 brave Spartans who died in 480 BC. died defending the Thermopylae Pass against the Persians. C.: "Strange, inform the Spartans that we lie here and obey your orders." All three lived in a different post-war world. There were still tyrants in Sicily, but in Greece itself the age of tyrants was replaced in their patronage by many wealthy Greeks willing to pay for a poem, including hymns, laments, songs sung in the service of Dionysus , called dithyrambs, and the songs for girls' choirs called Partheneia. One of the best-sellers was a poem in praise of a victory in one of the four major Greek sports competitions. The winner or his friends commissioned an epinikion (song of victory), which was originally a simple chant of welcome, but Simonides turned it into an art form. The contract likely specified the length of the poem and what was to be included. The poet may or may not need to train the chorus to perform the ode. The poet asked for a fee for his services. Simonides in particular had a reputation for being expensive. SIMONIDE. Simonides hails from the small island of Ceos, but he has built an international reputation as a poet and used it to promote himself. Only fragments of his work survive, but they include songs of victory, chants called "peanes", laments, epigrams and various lyrical poems. His subject matter was not limited to mythology, but also included Persian warfare. He wrote 480 B.C. a poem about the naval battle by Artemisio. C., defeat by the Greeks, which was followed by a great victory over the island of Salamis in the same year. The few surviving fragments of the poem indicate that 132

is a choral lyric. Recently, a papyrus from Egypt revealed an elegiac poem about the Battle of Plataea in which the Persian army fought in 479 BC. was destroyed. Their lamentations or mourning, called threnoi, were also famous. Its simple pathos was unequaled in Greek poetry, and over four centuries later the Roman poet Catullus used the phrase "sader than the tears of Simonides" to describe his sadness at the coldness of a friend. PIN. Pindar, born 518 BC near Thebes in Boeotia, he was one of the poets whose imposing importance during his lifetime was recognized by the Greeks, though he must be judged by the four books of his Victory Songs, as well as the surviving fragments of his other poetry. He received his first commission at the age of twenty to write an ode in honor of Hippocleas of Thessaly, the winner of the boys' two-foot race at the Pythian Games. He lived in great honor until his death around 438 BC. His language is brilliant and his allusions are often obscure to the modern reader, but less so to his contemporaries. The structure of his victory songs is precise: First comes the naming, in which the winner is named with his home town and patron; then comes the central element, which tells a myth that somehow reflects the success of the winner; and then the conclusion returns to the victor and his congregation reveling in his reflected glory. The ode was sung in celebration of the athlete's victory, but it is unclear how it was performed. perhaps a single choirmaster sang the poem while the choir danced behind him. Pindar was Boeotia's greatest poet, having already produced Hesiod and Corina, Pindar's older contemporaries. Such was his reputation that the destruction of Thebes by Alexander the Great in the following century spared only one house: that which had belonged to Pindar. BACHYLIDER. Little more than the name Bachylides, nephew of Simonides of Ceos, was known until 1896, when the British Museum acquired the remains of two papyrus scrolls containing Bachylides' poems, found in a tomb. One parchment contained songs of victory, the other six dithyrambs. He competed with Pindar for commissions, apparently not without success. 476 BC Both he and Pindar wrote songs of victory to Hiero, the tyrant of Syracuse, Sicily, for a horse-racing victory at Olympia, but in 468 B.C. BC, when Hiero won a victory in the chariot race at Olympia, he carried Bachylides with the Ode of Victory and bypassed Pindar. The surviving dithyrambs of Bacchylides have a ballad-like quality, recounting episodes from Greek mythology with plot twists likely drawn from Bachylides' own imagination. His charm lies in his ability as a storyteller.

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He gives the impression of a more able poet than a great poet, competent in his craft, and the opinion of the ancient Greek critics that he was not equal to Pindar is not unfair. SOURCES

D. S. Carne-Ross, Pindar (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1985). Greek bookshelf. 2. Rev. Fr. Details trans. Richmond Lattimore (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960). Gilbert Norwood, Pindaro (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1945). As the Oden of Pindaro. Trans. CM Bowra (London, England: Penguin, 1969). As the Oden of Pindaro. Trans. Richmond Lattimore (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947). William H. Race, Pindaro (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1986).

HERODOT OF HISTORY

PATER

RISE OF HISTORY. Around 425 BC BC Herodotus published his story with the proem (introductory phrase): This is the publication of the researches I have made by Herodotus of Halicarnassus that what men have done must not be obscured by the passage of time, and that great and wondrous achievements, some the work of the Greeks, some of the Persians, cannot remain without glory, and especially to show whose fault it was that they fought. [Italics added.]

Herodotus sets his theme early: the Persian Empire's invasion of the Greek city-states, which would culminate in the Persian takeover of cities on the coast of Asia Minor and the surrounding islands in the years after 546 BC. BC began. and ended in 479 BC. with the annihilation of the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea. However, Herodotus did not compile a mere chronicle of events as previous historians had done. He had two goals in mind. One concern he shared with the epic poets was to keep alive the memory of the heroic deeds and achievements of ancient people. The other was to investigate the cause of the conflict, and cause could not be separated from blame. Who or what was blamed for the great war between Persia and Greece? Finding the answer to this question would be the subject of Herodotus' investigation, since his word for "investigation" was stories that would take on new meaning after Herodotus. History as written in the Ionian dialect

Herodotus, or history in the Greek spoken on the streets of Athens, would become the word for "history" in the modern sense. It would be a search for causes and developments and not just a gathering of facts. BOTTOM. Herodotus was born shortly before 480 BC. in Halicarnassus, now Bodrum in Turkey. Halicarnassus was founded by colonists from the small Greek polis of Trezena in the Peloponnese, and they were Dorians speaking the Doric dialect they shared with Sparta. By the time of Herodotus, the Ionian dialect had taken over, and Halicarnassus also had a sizeable population of Carians, non-Greeks from south-western Asia Minor who had partially assimilated into Greek culture. The ruling dynasty of Halicarnassus was Carian and in 480 BC When King Xerxes of Persia launched his invasion of Greece, the ruler of Halicarnassus was Queen Artemisia, and when Xerxes recruited naval contingents from his subordinate cities, Artemisia personally led the fleet of Halicarnassus. . Herodotus treats her with admiration in his story, but at a young age she was involved in a revolt against Artemisia's grandson Ligdamis along with her uncle Panyassis, a poet who had attempted to revive the epic and was quite successful. ranked with Homer by some Greek critics. Panyassis lost his life and Herodotus fled Halicarnassus. His exile made him a historian. TRAVEL. Herodotus was now a stranger everywhere because a Greek was born a citizen of a polis and could only acquire new citizenship in exceptional cases. Finally, when a new city called Thurii was founded in southern Italy, Herodotus was able to appeal to the list of citizens, thus ending his life as "Herodotus of Thurii", not "Herodotus of Halicarnassus". The first sentence of his Historia probably identified him as "Herodotus of Thurii", but later editors corrected him to "Herodotus of Halicarnassus". Regardless of the title of his origin, his story indicates that Herodotus was restless and traveled widely. He visited Egypt at least once and interviewed Egyptian priests. He went to Babylon. He got as far as Ukraine, where the Scythians lived, and interviewed a Karian who was an agent of the Scythian king in trade between the Greeks and the Scythians. He visited Sparta and Athens, and some scholars believe that he befriended the then-leading Athenian politician, Pericles, and drew on Pericles' family traditions for information. However, there is no strong evidence to support this theory. Eventually he gained a reputation as a Logian, that is, an orator who did not sing poetry accompanied by music, but recited prose. A late source that can

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Longest stretch of ancient coastline of the Royal Road of the Persian Empire

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Map showing the greatest extent of the Persian Empire. Herodotus chronicled the expansion of the Persian Empire and its conflicts with Greece in his history. XNR PRODUCTIONS, INC. THE GALE GROUP.

There are reliable reports that during the Olympic Games Herodotus went to Olympia, pitched his tent there and gave recitations to all who listened. There are also stories from other visits to Greek cities. Athena liked his performance and paid him handsomely, but he was not allowed to speak to the young men of Thebes in Boeotia. Thebes sided with the Persians in the Persian Wars and probably did not appreciate being reminded of their lack of patriotism, and indeed Herodotus treated Thebes in his story with a remarkable lack of sympathy. THE PLAN OF HERODOTUS: THE PREPARATIONS. The story is a long, voluminous work, full of digressions. Long after Herodotus' death, scholars at the Library of Alexandria, where the kings of Egypt maintained a research institute, divided the story into nine books, named after the nine muses, but this is an artificial if convenient division. Herodotus simply follows the course of Asiatic aggression against the Greek world, with the result that the subject of history becomes an examination of imperialism and resistance to eastern imperialism. The east was home to a number of em134

Pires, which culminated in the Persian Empire while Greece was home to free city-states. Herodotus begins with the first Asian to subdue Greek cities and pay them tribute: Croesus, king of Lydia. He conquered the Ionian cities on the western edge of Asia Minor. It was in turn conquered by Cyrus, the founder of the Persian Empire, and all Greek cities on the eastern side of the Aegean, whether Ionian, Dorian or Aeolian, came under Persian control. Thus Herodotus pursued the Persian expansion course when Cyrus conquered Babylon and his successor Cambyses Egypt. As the Persian giant acquired new subjects, Herodotus digressed to describe what they were like. King Darius, the successor of Cambyses, crossed the Bosphorus to Europe and the region between the Aegean and the Danube fell under Persian rule. So far, Persian expansion has been driven by imperialism, but it was the Greeks themselves, particularly Athens and Eretria on the island of Euboea, who provoked the Persian invasion of mainland Greece. At the beginning of the fifth century B.C. CE Ionia rebelled against the Persian yoke, and Athens and Eretria sent aid to the rebels. Dario took over again

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Revenge in 490 BC Dispatch of an expeditionary force across the Aegean against Athens and Eretria. Eretria fell within a week, and the Persians landed at Marathon, north of Athens, to march on the city with their infantry and cavalry. The Athenians were outnumbered, but they adopted the bold tactic of lengthening their line of battle to match the Persian line, thinning their center, and strengthening their wings. They hoped to defeat the Persian wings and then attack the flanks of the Persian center where it was vulnerable to attack. It was a desperate tactic: the Athenian center was broken, but the Athenian wings swept past the Persians opposing them, closing the Persian flanks. After a hard fight, the Persians fled. Despite their fearsome reputation, they were not invincible, as the onslaught of heavily armed infantry - the hoplites - from Athens routed the Persian army, including cavalry. THE BATTLE FOR GREECE. Revenge and transgression were motives of action in the story, as Herodotus saw, but Darius died before taking revenge on the Greeks for that defeat. His court hawks have managed to persuade his son Xerxes to carry out his father's plans for Greece, although his uncle Artabanus advises him not to act hastily. At crucial moments like this, Herodotus often turned to a wise advisor who almost always discouraged rash action. Although he initially followed his uncle's advice, Xerxes decided to continue the invasion thanks to a vision that appeared to him twice in a dream, telling him that he must attack Greece or be overthrown. Herodotus is implying that Persian imperialism had developed a momentum of its own and that no mere king could stop it without paying a heavy fine. Xerxes raised a large army and fleet and fought his way through northern Greece on pontoon bridges across the Hellespont, while in Greece itself, under Sparta's leadership, the resisting states were united in an alliance and planning the defence. They attempted to stem the Persians at the Thermopylae Pass, where the space between Mount Kalidromos and the sea is so narrow that in some places only a single chariot could pass; At the same time, a Greek naval contingent attempted to contain the Persian fleet off Artemisium on the northern tip of the island of Euboea. But a traitor betrayed the Greeks defending Thermopylae and an ancient Spartan king, Leonidas, and his royal escort of 300 hoplites died there in battle, allowing the rest of his army to escape. The Persians advanced and burned Athens. But the Athenian general Themistocles persuaded the Greek fleet to resist on the island of Salamis, and there the cocky Persian navy was so mistreated that it withdrew.

obtained from the western Aegean. Xerxes himself left Greece at the end of the campaign season, but he left a smaller but more efficient force commanded by an able general, Mardonius, who recaptured and burned Athens. But at Plataea in southern Boeotia a Greek army under the Spartans Pausanias, regent for the minor son of Leonidas, completely defeated Mardonius, and at the same time—some say on the same day—a Greek fleet destroyed a Persian fleet at Mycale. on the coast of Ionia. Thus Persian imperialism reached its zenith and began its long recession. LOOKING FOR A REASON. Herodotus explains in his introduction that one of his aims was to show why the Greeks and Persians were at war. Who or what was wrong? Herodotus never tells us exactly why, but he allows the reader to draw many conclusions. Revenge was a motive for historical action: one power offended another, and the wronged power sought revenge. Revenge is a force that maintains boundaries and balance. When something upsets the balance of nature, something else will take revenge and restore balance. By pushing the boundaries of its empire beyond Asia and seeking world domination, Persia upset the natural balance between the continents and the two very different ways of life. But it is also clear that a force other than revenge was driving the Persian Empire in its ill-fated attempt to conquer Greece. Persia, under a despot, had embraced expansionism as a way of life, and when it invaded Greece it found a people whose way of life embraced individual liberty. Two ways of life were fighting for supremacy in the Persian War as Herodotus saw it, and Greece's victory demonstrated the importance of freedom. If we search for themes in Herodotus' story, two stand out: that imperialism leads empires to overstretch, and that individual liberty makes soldiers bolder than despotic rule. SOURCES

Egbert J. Bakker, Irene JF de Jong und Hans van Wees, Companion to Herodotus de Brill (Leiden, Países Baixos: Brill, 2002). Peter Derow und Robert Parker, Hrsg., Herodotus and His World: Essays from a Conference in Memory of George Forrest (Oxford, Inglaterra: Oxford University Press, 2003). JAS Evans, Herodotus (Boston: Twayne, 1982). Stewart Flory, La sonrisa arcaica de Herodoto (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1987). Charles W. Fornara, Herodotus, An Interpretative Essay (Oxford, Inglaterra: Oxford University Press, 1971).

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John Gould, Herodot (Nueva York: St. Martin's Press, 1989). James S. Romm, Herodot (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1998).

T HUCIDIDES THE LONELY HISTORIAN. Thucydides occupies a lonely place in the pantheon of historians. He's considered one of the greatest in the world, but he had no followers who could emulate his kind of story. His plan was to write an accurate history of the Peloponnesian War, the battle that ended in the late fifth century BC. the Greek world tore apart. CE, from 431 to 404 BC. He intended to create an "eternal possession" that future generations could refer to when they found themselves in situations similar to those in the Peloponnesian War. Unlike Herodotus, he did not write in a clear and legible style. Strict and aloof, he treated war like a doctor observing a sick patient. This was the time when the medical school on the island of Kos, founded by the great diagnostician Hippocrates, was compiling descriptions of diseases so that doctors could make correct diagnoses, and Thucydides was influenced by the approach of this medical school. Among ancient Greek critics, Herodotus had an undeserved reputation as a storyteller, while Thucydides had an undeserved reputation as a truthful narrator of what really happened. His bias is easily seen in his admiration for Athenian democracy under Pericles, which was not really a democracy, as Pericles dominated politics to the point where democracy was really a one-man rule. The historian's admiration for Pericles did not extend to his successor Cleon, the son of a tanner who was a mass favorite in the Athenian assembly. In reality, Cleon was a better administrator than Thucydides admits in his writings, but Thucydides favored Cleon's rival, Nicias, a conservative man who feared the gods but whose incompetence almost brought Athens to its knees. For the most part, however, Thucydides played the role of an impartial reporter very well. THE PELOPONESIAN WAR. The so-called Peloponnesian War, which lasted from 431 to 404 BC. C., was fought between Athens, which had built up an empire in the years after the Persian war, and Sparta, which led an alliance of states centered on the Peloponnese. , the region of Greece south of the Isthmus of Corinth. After the first ten years of the war, sometimes referred to as “Archi136

Damian War" in honor of the Spartan king Archidamus, who commanded the Peloponnesian forces during the early years of the war. The Archidamian War ended in a peace treaty that was never accepted by some of Sparta's allies, and during the brief period when hostilities ceased, Athens launched an expedition against Sicily with the intention of expanding its imperial reach there, and its expeditionary force was completely destroyed . in 413 BC In the final years of the war, Persia intervened and granted Sparta a subsidy for the construction of a Spartan fleet, and when the war ended with the surrender of Athens, Sparta and Persia divided the Athenian empire between themselves. The motto of Sparta and its allies at the beginning of the war was "liberation for the Greeks", i.e. liberation from the Athenian Empire, but by the end of the war the motto had been forgotten. THE FALL OF ATHENS. Thucydides began his story with the causes of the Peloponnesian War. The underlying cause was Sparta and its allies' fear of Athenian imperialism, although Thucydides pointed to three immediate causes. Initially, Athens was embroiled in a battle between Corinth, a member of the Spartan alliance, and the former colony of Korkyra (Corfu, now Kerkyra), and Corinth appealed to its allies. Second, a subsidiary state of the Athenian Empire, Potidaea, rebelled against Athens, and Corinth sent aid to Potidaea. Eventually, Athens imposed a trade embargo with neighboring Megara, which was an ally of Sparta. Pericles had a war-winning strategy for Athens that capitalized on his strength. Athens had a powerful fleet consisting of galleys called triremes rowed by well-trained crews of Athenian citizens. On land, however, Sparta and its allies were no match, and when the Spartan-led army invaded Athenian territory, the Athenians evacuated their farms and took refuge behind the walls of the great city. Long walls fortified the road between Athens and its port of Piraeus to allow Athens access to the sea and use its fleet to conduct commando attacks on Peloponnesian territory. This would become a war of attrition, with each side trying to wear the other down, and Pericles believed Athens would outlive Sparta. But an unexpected event messed up his calculations. In the second year of the war, the Athenians were struck by a plague detailed by Thucydides. Pericles himself fell ill, recovered, but died soon after. The first ten years of the war ended in 421 BC. with a peace treaty. E.C., but the result was trading a hot war for a cold one. Athens, always striving to expand its empire, sent in 415 BC. BC An expedition to the neutral territory of Sicily. CE, hoping to capture its capital, Syracuse. to Thucydides,

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To anyone familiar with the tragedies of the Athenian stage, the Sicilian expedition must have seemed like an act of arrogance on the part of the protagonist that preceded his fall into tragic drama. The attempt to capture Syracuse failed, and Athens lost all the ships and men it had sent to Sicily. The powerful prose of Thucydides' description of the last desperate battle in Syracuse harbor stirs our emotions because it is outwardly callous. The Athenians, having lost their best warships and troops, were in dire straits, bankrupt and facing revolts in their empire, but they did not give up. When Thucydides 411 B.C. In his narrative he broke off mid-sentence, leaving his story unfinished. It could have been sudden death; he would have drowned in the sea. All that is certain is that he knew full well that the war would end in Athens' defeat, and he intended to bring the story to an end. TUCIDOS CONTINUE. More than one author has endeavored to continue the work of Thucydides. Two historians, Theopompus and Cratinus, have individually picked up the story in which Thucydides resolved and dated it to 394 BC. BC continued. CE, ten years after the year of the defeat of Athens. Athens around 394 BC he was about to be resurrected, and thus Thucydides' tragic vision has a happy ending. A piece of papyrus discovered in 1906 at Oxyrhynchus in Egypt has about 900 continued lines, clearly written by a competent historian and attributed by many scholars to Cratinus. However, the lack of concrete evidence to support this assumption forces the more general authorship of "The Oxyrhynchus Historian" or Hellenica Oxyrhynchia. The only sequel we have, the Hellenic one, was written by Xenophon, a former student of the philosopher Socrates. Xenophon's Hellenica picked up Greek history where Thucydides left off and continued it until 362 BC. CE continued. None of those who continued Thucydides' work, as far as we know, ended their history with the surrender of the Athenians to Sparta in 404 BC. SOURCES

Charles Norris Cochrane, Thucydides and the Science of History (London, England: Oxford University Press, 1929). W. Robert Connor, Thucydides (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984). J.H. Finley, Thucydides (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1942). Simon Hornblower, Thucydides (London, England: Duckworth, 1987). Jonathan Price, Thucydides and the War Within (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).

H STORY

AFTER

T HUKIDIDE

Xenophon. The 4th century had many historians, but only a small part of their output survives. The author with the best surviving record is Xenophon, an Athenian of good family and a member of Socrates' circle. Against the advice of Socrates, he joined a corps of Greek mercenaries in the army that fought in 401 BC. by Cyrus, the younger brother of the Persian king. usurp the throne. The expedition was a disaster, but Xenophon safely guided them to the Black Sea coast, and from there they scattered in search of other employers. Xenophon himself placed himself in the service of the Spartans. He was banished from Athens shortly after the death of Socrates (he did not return to Athens until 365 BC) and lived until the revolts that followed Sparta's defeat at Leuctra in 372 BC. on lands granted to him by Sparta for much of his exile. forced him to move. He wrote on subjects ranging from the Spartan constitution to horse training, but is best known for his Memoirs of Socrates (Memorabilia); his Anabasis, or "March Up Country," which tells the story of the failed attempt by Prince Cyrus, younger brother of King Artaxerxes II of Persia, to ascend the Persian throne; and his Hellenic, which tells the story from Thucydides to the Battle of Mantinea in 362 BC. BC continues. Xenophon is an easy-to-read author, and among his other claims to fame is the introduction of a new literary genre: the historical novel. His "Education of Cyrus" (Cyropaedia) is a fictional account of Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Persian Empire. It's a bad novel full of cautionary tales and rarely read these days, but it's a groundbreaking adventure in historical fiction. THE LOST HISTORIANS. Many historians wrote in the fourth century B.C. but his works have not survived. We know them because later writers quoted them, or they were used by later writers as a source for their own history, or in some cases because fragments of papyrus containing remains of their works turned up in the sands of Egypt. One of the most prominent was Theopompus of Chios, who wrote a long history about Alexander the Great's father, Philip II of Macedon. It was groundbreaking because it focused on a single personality, portraying Theopompus as the greatest man Europe had ever produced. Another highly respected historian was the Ephorus of Cyme, who composed what has become the standard history of Greece: a universal history of Greece from the Dorian invasion to his own time. Some of what he wrote survives second-hand because his story was written by another world historian, living in the 1st century B.C. wrote, was used as a source. C.E., Diodorus the Sicilian, and we still have the story of Diodorus. Diodorus based his world history on authors other than Ephorus, but Ephorus was a preferred source for him.

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Gordon S. Shrimpton, Theopompus der Historiker, (Montreal, Kanada: McGill-Queens University Press, 1977). Frank W. Walbank, Polybius (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972). —, Polybius, Rome and the Hellenistic World: Essays and Reflections (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

GREEK COMEDY

Imaginative engraving of Xenophon, one of the modern sources of information about the life of Socrates. THE LIBRARY

VON

CONGRESS.

Copy of. The conquests of Alexander the Great produced a number of historical writings, but none survived except as sources for the work of other Greek and Roman historians, such as Plutarch and Arrian, writing in Greek, and Curtius Rufus in Latin, all dating from the period of the Roman Empire. Greece in the 4th century BC he also developed a liking for local chronicles; The Chronicles of Athens were known as Atides, or "Chronicles of Attica", and two of their notable authors were Androtion and Philochorus. There is also a historian from the 2nd century BC. 400 BC, Polybius of Megalopolis (208-126 BC), who was exiled from Greece to Rome, where he wrote forty books on the history of Rome, beginning with the first war between Rome and Carthage (265-241) BC. BC). About a third survived. It is an important source of information about Rome's war with Hannibal. A dry writer, however, he is reliable and an astute observer of Rome's growing power. SOURCES

John K. Anderson, Xenophon (Nova York: Scribner, 1974). William E. Higgins, Xenophon of the Athenians: The Problem of the Individual and the Society of the Polis (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1977). 138

BEGIN. The early history of comedy is unclear, Aristotle commented in his book On the Art of Poetry, because nobody took it seriously. The polis Megara, which lay between Corinth and Athens, claimed to have invented it, as did Sicily, which produced a farce writer, Epicharmus, who was ruled by the Syracusan tyrants Gelon (485-478 BC) and his successor Hiero ( 478 BC) was patronized. ). –467 BC BC). Little of his work survives, although there is enough to make us mourn his loss. He wrote Burlesques on Myths: A Play entitled The Marriage of Hebe was set on Mount Olympus and parodied the marriage of Heracles to Hebe. However idolized he may have been, Heracles was still portrayed as he was in the comic theater: a boorish lout who wolfed down his food and got drunk. Another type of comedy Epicharmus wrote dealt with contemporary life and featured standard characters (i.e. characters with typical roles such as the clever slave, the arrogant soldier and the young lover), and a third type of comedy he wrote toyed with plots amidst the mean. human abstractions; for example, one seems to have revolved around a debate between women's logic and men's logic. Epicarmus' plays, unlike the comedies produced in Athens, had no chorus, although there was musical accompaniment. Farces were evidently popular in Sicily and 'Magna Graecia', as the Greek settlements of southern Italy were known, as local potters used scenes from the comic theater as vase paintings. These farces foreshadow the New Comedy that would replace Aristophanes' Old Comedy on the Athenian stage more than a century later. ANCIENT ATHENS COMEDY. Ancient comedy was an Athenian theatrical development with current allusions to Athenian politics, and its acceptance as an art form dates to 488-487 or 487-486 BC. C., when the archon is appointed, the chief magistrate of Athens who gave his name to the year, became responsible for providing a chorus for a day of five comedies to be produced at the City Dionysia Festival each spring of the modern month march. Shortly before 440 BC A day of comedy was included in the other great festival

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Dionysus, where dramas were performed, the Lenaea festival in January. We also know that in the fourth century BC. Comedies were produced in Dionysia Rural, which were festivals in the rural districts of Athens called "demes", and it is likely that comedies were also produced there before, given the physical evidence of theater in some of these demos . Until the rise of Aristophanes, there are few names and a handful of fragments of the comic poets of that era, including Cratinus, aged and notorious for his wine drinking but still writing when Aristophanes began his career, and Eupolis, whom he was a worthy rival by Aristophanes and popular in his time because he was frequently quoted. Other comic dramatists, not to be confused with the philosopher Plato, such as Crates, Pherecrates, Hermippus, Phrynichus, Teleclides, Ameipsias, Theopompus and Plato, are little more than names attached to the titles of lost comedies. The eleven plays of Aristophanes are all that remains of ancient Greek comedy, and they owe their survival to the fact that Aristophanes became popular in the second century AD as particular reading for Greek schoolchildren. BACKGROUND BY ARISTOFANO. The approximate dates of Aristophanes' life (450-385 BC) place him in one of the most turbulent periods of Athenian politics. He was a boy in the time of Pericles, when the politician Pericles ruled Athens. Pericles' authority rested on his rule over the popular assembly, the Ekklesia, in which all male citizens could vote. A wealthy and well-connected man, Pericles could dominate the assembly as long as he followed popular politics, which he did. He adopted an imperialist approach to Athens' neighbors that resulted in the creation of an Athenian Empire profitable enough to fund a lavish building program in Athens. It also led to the Peloponnesian War with Sparta and its allies. Nine of Aristophanes' plays were written in time of war and date from after the death of Pericles in the autumn of 429 BC. The great man proved irreplaceable, and cracks in the Athenian body began to appear under the pressure of war. THE FIRST WORKS. Aristophanes' first comedy was The Banqueters, produced in 427 BC. C., who won second prize in City Dionysia, followed by The Babylonians the following year. Although the Babylonians won first prize, he also reaped the wrath of the politician Cleon, who successfully prosecuted him for anti-Athenian propaganda. The reason the plant was set on fire has escaped history, as none of these plants survived. His next play, The Acarnii, was written in January 425 BC. Performed at the Lenaea Festival. A year later in

Bust of the Athenian comedian Aristophanes.

BETTMANN/CORBIS.

The same festival produced the knights, and in 423 B.C. he produced Las nubes, a burlesque by Socrates, which won only third prize. Aristophanes was bitterly disappointed; the Acarni and the Knights won first prizes, and as the number of comedies had been reduced from five to three during the Peloponnesian War for economic reasons, this meant that the clouds were last. Aristophanes decided to rewrite it, and at least part of the surviving text is from this second edition, which was never made. 422 BC his play The Wasps won second prize, and the following year, when Athens and Sparta signed a peace treaty, Aristophanes produced his comedy La Paz and again won second prize. OLD COMEDY FORMULA. The structure of the comic work was already established at the height of Aristophanes. First, there was a prologue where the main character has a brilliant idea that kickstarts the plot. Then come the parodies: the performance of the 24-strong choir in fantastic masks and costumes. Next comes the Agon: a debate between a character who supports the prologue's brilliant idea and an opponent who always loses. Then comes the parabasis where the choir steps forward and sings directly to the audience. The parabasis gave the comic poet the opportunity to do so

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Express your opinion on the current state of affairs. Then come the episodes in which the brilliant idea is implemented, sometimes with comical results, then comes the exodus that ends the play happily: a wedding, a party, or some happy occasion. This was not a fixed formula. The Acarnians have two episodes, the Knights have three, and the Clouds have two Agons. The last two plays of Aristophanes lack a parabasis, but at the time of their production the Old Comedy gave way to the Middle Comedy, which dispensed with the parabasis. He belonged to an age that preferred not to listen to the personal opinions of comic poets. THE AKARNER. One of Aristophanes' earliest works, The Arcarnian, is a work whose theme is the madness of war. The Akarners of the title of this work were Demo (constituency) citizens of Acharnae, warhawks who made a living by making charcoal. The Peloponnesian War was in its sixth year when this work was written. The peasants suffered great hardship and were forced to leave their farms when Allied Spartan troops invaded Attica - as they did every year when the harvest was ripe - and took refuge behind the walls of Athens. The plague aggravated their suffering; the great plague reached its worst peak in the second year of the war, but lasted another three years. The setting for the Akarner is the Pnyx in Athens, where people gathered for Ekklesia meetings. Diceopolis, a decent citizen, tells of his problems while waiting for the assembly to be called. As he does so, Aphiteu proposes peace talks with Sparta, but is silenced. Disgusted, Diceopolis recruits Amphiteus to negotiate a private truce for him with Sparta, and returns from Sparta to offer Diceopolis three options: a truce of five, ten, or thirty years. Diceopolis chooses a thirty-year peace and leaves. The chorus of anti-peace Acarnians arrive to seek the man who dared sign a truce with Sparta. When Diceopolis returns, stones are thrown at him, and to save himself he rushes to the house of the tragic poet Euripides, whose works were famous for their pathetic heroes. Euripides gives Diceopolis a torn robe to wear, and in his Euripidean outfit, Diceopolis offers a clever parody of a speech by Euripides in his defense, in which he examines the causes of the war and absolves Sparta. The choir's sympathies are divided, and the warhawks call upon an ally, Lamachus, a well-known hawk. Lamachus takes the stage, magnificent in his full armour, but the arguments of Diceopolis crush him. Diceopolis announces an end to all war boycotts. The choir then advances to the front of the stage and sings the parabase directly to the audience, the theme of 140

What are the virtues of Aristophanes. After two more episodes, Lamachus is ordered to go into battle, and the play ends with Lamachus returning wounded from the war and Dicaeopolis drunk from a feast, with a courtesan on each arm. In the final scene, Diceopolis revolts and Lamacos groans, and the folly of belligerence is clear to all. THE GENTLEMEN. The Knights was an attack on Cleon, the foremost Warhawk and favorite of the Athenian commoner. The year before, the Athenians defeated Sparta at Sphacteria, an island at the northern end of Navarino Bay, where they abandoned a Spartan force, including 120 of their Spartan elite, and forced it to surrender. Cleon received the credit he partially deserved, although Aristophanes disagreed. In The Knights, Demos is a good old man who is easily fooled, and his new slave, a Paphlagonia tanner, keeps him under his control, to the dismay of two other slaves, Demosthenes and Nicias. Each character represented a real person: the Paphlagonian was Cleon, barely disguised; the other two slaves were the Athenian generals Demosthenes and Nicias; and the ancient demos represented the Athenian people, for whom the Greek word was demos. Demosthenes and Nicias depose the Paphlagonian by introducing an even greater villain, a sausage seller who outshines the Paphlagonian for Demos' favor and emerges as a statesman whose real name is Agoracritus, meaning "Choice of the Agora". In Exodus, Agoracritus announces that he has rejuvenated Demos into a young, vigorous, and highly sexualized man. THE CLOUDS. The target of Aristophanes' mockery in The Clouds is Socrates, who is portrayed in the play as possessing a phrontisterion, a think tank combined with a school for Athenian youth. The plot revolves around Strepsiades, an ancient Athenian, and his failed son Pheidippides. Pheidippides' passion for chariot racing has left him deep in debt, and Strepsiades fears his son's creditors will be after him. To avoid creditors, he decides to enroll his son in the Socrates school, which teaches debaters how to make weaker arguments sound better. Pheidippides refuses to go, so Strepsiades enlists. Socrates' attempt to tutor poor Strepsiades is good slapstick, but the result is Strepsiades expelled for stupidity and insisting his son enroll or leave home. Pheidippides is mentored by two think tank professors, Just Cause, who teaches antiquated virtues, and Unjust Cause, who teaches how to find loopholes in the law. They discuss the goals of education. Unfair Cause wins for formal reasons and assumes that Pei-

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dismal workout. He's making such great progress that he can justify beating his father. Strepsiades, realizing that the new learning Socrates represents has ruined his son, burns down Socrates' institute. THE BEES. A citizen of Athens had the right to be tried in front of his fellow citizens, and in practice this meant being tried by a grand jury of 100 plus one to 500 plus one, hearing the arguments of the plaintiff and the accused heard and then voted on the verdict. . A jury's fee was small. For seniors, however, jury service was as welcome a supplement to income as entertainment. However, because many viewed jury service as entertainment, it was often viewed by many as a pointless scoring system. In Wasps, a farce about the jury system, a conflict of wills arises between the old man Philocleon (Cleon's lover) and his son Bdelycleon (Cleon's hater). The chorus of jurors dressed as wasps summons Philocleon to join them on the jury, but Bdelycleon has his father locked inside. After an argument, Bdelycleon convinces his father that juries are just tools in the hands of selfish demagogues and promises Philocleon that if he gives up his jury addiction, he will feed him and let him play at home. Then, in a parody of a court case, Philocleon puts the dog Labes on trial for stealing cheese; Bdelycleon defends the dog so well that Philocleon acquits him. Realizing his mistake for never having voted for "Innocent" before, Philocleon collapses and is carried off the stage. Two episodes follow: in the first, on his way to a feast with Philocleon, Bdelycleon instructs him to behave like an Athenian gentleman; and in the second Philokleon returns from the feast with a piper, very drunk and with a naked girl in one arm. While Philocleon tries to sleep with the girl, Bdelycleon forces him into his house. PEACE. When peace came, Cleon was dead, as was the main Spartan Warhawk, Brasidas. Both died in the same battle at Amphipolis in northern Greece. For Athens, the battle was disastrous, but in both Athens and Sparta, the parties supporting peace retained control, and in 421 BC. a peace treaty was signed. In La Paz, Trygaeus, an Athenian, flies into the sky on the back of a scarab, where he discovers that the Olympian gods have turned their backs on the Greek warriors in disgust, leaving war and turmoil in charge of their palace. . War threw peace down a well and threw stones over it. Trygaeus, with the help of a chorus of Greek peasants and laborers, frees Paz along with Harvest and Diplomacy, two women Trygaeus brings with him when he returns to Earth. Trygaeus prepares a wedding feast using a tranquilizer

Sayer appears and prophesies that the war cannot be stopped. In Exodus, a group hit hard by peace appears: armor makers, trumpet makers, etc. They try to offload excess weapons and armor onto Trygaeus, but he takes none with him. He throws her out and the party begins. THE BIRDS. The play The Birds is a humorous parody of the "castles in the air" built by some Athenians as they envisioned their triumph in conquering Sicily in the late 5th century BC. presented. The castles in the air would soon implode. 415 BC CE Athens sent a large fleet to Sicily, and two years later the fleet was completely destroyed in an unsuccessful attempt to capture the city of Syracuse. However, when The Birds was being produced, the Athenians still harbored hopes of establishing an empire in Sicily that would make Athens the superpower of the Greek world. In the play, two Athenian adventurers, Pisthetaurus and Euelpides, convince the birds to build a new city in the sky between earth and sky called Cloudcuckooland. Cloudcuckooland isolates the gods from the smoke rising from human sacrifices, and the gods are forced to seek a peace treaty with the birds. Pisthetaurus and Baseia (meaning 'kingship') marry and they leave the stage and fly to Zeus' palace to take over. THE LYSISTRATE. In AD 411, after the disastrous Sicilian expedition, many of the wealthiest and most conservative Athenians lost confidence in waging the war for Athenian democracy. Lysistrata is Aristophanes' plea for peace. Lysistrata is an Athenian housewife who is fed up with war. Traditionally, women in Athens have been excluded from government, but Lysistrata's abhorrence of male clumsiness leads her to lead a women's revolt to seize the Athenian government and end the war. Women agree to refuse sex to their husbands until they make it up to them while making themselves as attractive as possible to pump up their husbands' hormones. They occupy the Acropolis where the Parthenon housed the treasury. The revolution spreads to Sparta, where women cast out their husbands until peace was made. Finally, in the third episode, envoys arrive from Sparta to plead for peace, and everyone calls for Lysistrata. He appears on stage with a statue of the Goddess of Reconciliation and gives a speech about the value of woman and the value of Panhellenism when all Greeks unite instead of fighting each other. The play ends with the Athenians and Spartans feasting and dancing. THESMOPHORIAZUSAE. Thesmophoriazusae (Women Celebrating Thesmophoria) is a parody of Euripides,

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whose tragedies were controversial: he was famous for hating women because he did not idealize them in his plays. In Thesmophoriazusae, the women of Athens decided to execute Euripides for his insults to the female sex. Euripides, together with his father-in-law Mnesilochus, turns to the tragic poet Agathon for help. Agathon was famous in real life for his femininity and for inventing plots for his plays rather than pulling them from mythology. When Agathon agrees to receive his visitors, he is shown lying on his bed surrounded by ladies' toiletries. He refuses to help, but agrees to lend Euripides women's clothing for Mnesilochus to wear when he meets the women at Thesmophorion, the temple of Demeter, where the religious festival of women known as Thesmophoria is held. Finding them denouncing Euripides, he takes up their defense, arguing that women are far worse than Euripides described them. He angers the women into attacking him, and then a known pedophile, Cleisthenes, also dressed as a woman, exposes him as a man. So Euripides himself tries to save Mnesilochus from his own plays with various dramaturgical means, and finally manages to save his father-in-law with a tried and tested method: He disguises himself as a pimp - i.e. as a female pimp - and enters the stage with two girls. They distract the policeman holding Mnesilochus and allow Euripides to free Mnesilochus. THE FROG. 405 BC The Peloponnesian War was ending, but the Radical Democrats in Athens still did not want peace. The deaths of Sophocles and Euripides the year before had given the frogs a bittersweet tone. In the play, the god Dionysus, patron of the Athenian stage, descends into the underworld to bring back his favorite dramatist, Euripides, as no living tragedian was as imaginative as he was. In the underworld there is a contest between the long dead Aeschylus and Euripides, the newcomer to the underworld. The poets' worth is determined by taking a scale and placing a verse from one of each contestant's works on the scale and seeing which verse weighs the most. Aeschylus wins in three tests because his verse expresses heavy ideas, while Euripides is a comparatively light intellectual. However, when Dionysius decides in favor of Aeschylus, Euripides reminds him that Dionysius had descended to the underworld in the first place to bring him back. Dionysius replies with a famous quote from Euripides' tragedy Hippolytus, which the Athenians saw as the pinnacle of sophistry when first uttered on the stage: 'My tongue swore. My heart remains without an oath." Job 142

It ends with a feast, and Hades, the lord of death, sends Aeschylus back to Athens with messages to some surviving Athenians that he wishes to see them soon. The Frogs is the last surviving example of ancient comedy, and it is Aristophanes at his most brilliant. THE ECCLESIAZUSAE. After the end of the Peloponnesian War, the Old Comedy declined in popularity. It thrived under the carefree democracy of fifth-century Athens, but after the war the political atmosphere changed, although democracy was restored after a group of disaffected right-wingers known as the "Thirty Tyrants" seized power and established a short-lived regime had. Duration. Group. oligarchic government. Ecclesiazusae (Women in the Assembly, produced 391 BC) and Plutus (388 BC), the last surviving play by Aristophanes, belong to the Middle Comedy. The Middle Comedy differs from the Old Comedy in that the parabase is omitted, the chorus is less important, and direct attacks on Athenian politicians are absent. The aim of Aristophanes' satire Ecclesiazusae is Plato's republic. Although it is unclear whether the Republic had been published by the time Ecclesiazusae was produced, Plato's Lectures had propagated his ideas, and the idea of an ideal society without private property as satirized by Aristophanes in his work was familiar to Aristophanes. ' public. In the play, the women of Athens, led by Praxagoras, dress in their husbands' clothes, go early to the Ekklesia, the assembly that held supreme power in Athenian democracy, and set up a new constitution in which everything is common , even women. The following episodes comment on the new order. Praxagora's husband Blepyrus is pleased with his wife's initiative as he looks forward to a life of laziness. Another citizen wants to share in the benefits of the new order without contributing anything. A handsome young man wants to sleep with a charming courtesan, but is obliged by law to first please two old women who drag him along to enjoy their sexual prowess. The play ends with a shared feast. The moral of the play is that an ideal society needs ideal citizens to make it work, and there are none to be found in Athens. THE PLUTO. One of Aristophanes' darkest comedies, Plutus reminded audiences that a degree of injustice can be necessary for an economy to work. In this play, an old blind man dressed in rags enters the stage, followed by Cremilo and his slave Carlo. The Oracle of Delphi told Cremilus to follow the first man he met after leaving the temple, and it turned out to be this blind old man. Chremylus and Carlo ask the old man who he is, and he reluctantly tells them it is him

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it is Plutus, the god of wealth whom Zeus, jealous as ever of mankind, has blinded. Chremylus decides to cure Plutus of his blindness and brings Plutus to his home. Chremylus' friend Blepsidemus agrees to restore Plutus' sight in exchange for some of the wealth bestowed by Plutus. They take him to the temple of Asclepius, the god of healing, but are interrupted by a vile woman, the goddess of poverty. She and Chremylus debate whether poverty or Plutus, the god of wealth, is more beneficial to mankind. Chremylus argues that if Plutus could see he would only reward the good and therefore all would eventually become good. Poverty compensates for that, if that happened nobody would want to work. Chremylus wins the argument and a miracle cure restores Plutus' sight. So we see the results - both good and bad - when only good and deserving people are rewarded. Not everyone is excited about this new dispensation. A righteous man enters the scene. is he happy Enter an informant. He's broke. An old woman disguised as a girl comes to tell Plutus that her gigolo has left her. Hermes arrives to report that men are no longer making sacrifices and the gods are starving. A priest of Zeus reports that he too is starving and goes to the new god Pluto. Then Plutus himself enters the picture, followed by the old woman who has lost her gigolo. She is sure that he will come back to her. The play ends with a procession to the Acropolis to install Pluto and begin his reign. AVERAGE COMEDY. Between Athens' defeat in the Peloponnesian War in 404 B.C. and 321 BC C., the probable date that Menander produced his first comedy, The Rage, comedy underwent a tremendous transformation. Audiences became more solidly middle class as the poor could no longer go to the theatre. The focus of the plays shifted from politics to courtesans, food and sex. The chorus only provided singing and dancing instead of being part of the action. Although we have the names of about fifty authors and the titles of more than 700 comedies, no middle comedy has survived, with the exception of the last two plays by Aristophanes. Titles range from The Birth of Aphrodite, obviously a burlesque mythology—myth parodies were popular in middle comedy—to The Stolen Girl, which sounds like a sitcom. Characters from the fringes of high society keep reappearing as ordinary characters: the professional courtesan who sometimes has a heart of gold, the clever slave, the boastful soldier, and the freeloader who survives to serve rich friends. These are international character types with Panhellenic appeal, meaning they could be from any Greek city, not just Athens. Indeed, many of the playwrights

Imaginative portrayal of Menander, the leading New Comedy playwright. THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.

who produced the Middle Comedy in Athens were not Athenian citizens. THE DISCOVERY OF MEANDRO. Until the early 20th century, the only known examples of New Comedy came from second-hand adaptations of Greek plays by the Roman playwrights Plautus and Terence for the Roman stage. These adaptations added some spice to New Comedy playwrights Menander, Diphilus, Philemon, and Apollodorus. In 1905, a papyrus codex, that is, a papyrus document bound like a modern book, was found at Aphroditus, modern-day Kom Esqawh, Egypt. Contains large portions of Menander's Girl from Samos, The Rape of the Locks and the Arbitration, and fragments of two other works. A little over fifty years later, a papyrus came to light containing the full text of Dyscolos (The Hot-tempered Man), further fragments of The Girl from Samos, and half of a play entitled The Shield. Since then, other papyrus fragments have been discovered, one unspecified work of 200 lines in 2003, but Dyscolos is the only complete work discovered.

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THE DISCOLS. Dyscolos was first mentioned in 316 BC. Produced at the Lenaea Festival in Athens. It is one of Menander's earliest works, a light situation drama without the typical New Comedy characters. In the play, Knemon, a misanthropic man, marries a widow who has a son, Gorgias, from a previous marriage. They have a daughter, but Knemon's wife, unable to bear his bad mood, leaves him and he practically lives as a hermit on his farm. Sostratus falls in love with his daughter and asks for her hand in marriage. Knemon refuses, but after falling down a well and being rescued by Sostratus, he becomes a different man. He reconciles with his wife and agrees to give their daughter Sostratos in marriage. He also marries Gorgias to the sister of Sostratus. INFLUENCE OF THE NEW COMEDY. The New Comedy shaped the style of Greek theater after Alexander the Great in the 3rd century BC. Advance payment. Numerous theater festivals sprang up throughout the cities, and groups of professional actors traveled from place to place to perform their plays. From Greece, New Comedy moved to Rome, where playwrights Plautus and Terence created plays modeled on New Comedy. While Aristophanes' early plays were tied to a place and time, the new comedy had universal appeal. SOURCES

KJ Dover, Aristophanic Comedy (London, England: B. T. Batsford, 1972). RL Hunter, The New Comedy of Greece and Rome (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). Hans-Joachim Newiger, "War and Peace in Aristophanes' Comedy", Yale Classical Studies 26 (1980): 219–237. Gilbert Norwood, Greek Comedy (London, England: Methuen, 1931; Reprint, New York: Hill and Wang, 1963). FH Sandbach, The Comic Theater of Greece and Rome (London, England: Chatto and Windus, 1977). Dana Ferrin Sutton, Alte Komödie: Der Krieg der Generationen (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1993). Michael J. Walton und Peter Arnott, Menander and the Making of Comedy (Westfield, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996). CH Whitman, Aristophanes and the Comic Hero (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964).

THE BEGINNING OF GREEK TRAGEDY. The evidence for the origins of tragic drama is ambiguous. The name itself is odd, as Tragoidia means "goat's song" or maybe "goat's song".

for a goat" and attempts to explain its meaning were ingenious but never entirely successful. The Roman poet Horace, a contemporary of Emperor Augustus, thought that "tragedy" got its name because the prize for best tragedy was a goat, but this is unlikely. One fact, however, is undisputed: the tragedy was closely linked to the cult of Dionysus, and Aristotle claimed that it developed from the dithyramb, a choral song honoring Dionysus. The heyday of Greek tragedy began in Athens when, around 536 BC, the tyrant Pisistratus founded the Dionysian city festival. where dithyrambs were performed by amateur choir singers. Peisistratus hoped to use the festival to publicize Athens. After his death in 527 B.C. His sons Hippias, who succeeded him as tyrant, and Hipparchus, who became quasi-minister of culture, continued his politics until Hippias was assassinated and Hippias slain four years later in 510 BC. was ousted from power. In the city of Dionysia from 534 BC 536-533 BC, or at least between 536 and 533, the leader of the choir Thespis of the city of Icaria played a solo role in his dithyramb, thereby introducing an actor playing a part in the story. As Aristotle pointed out, tragedy was the enactment of an action worthy of attention, and once there was an actor there could be imitation of the action, although the chorus continued to sing the action. We know next to nothing about Thespis other than her father's name, Themon, and that she had a student named Phrynychus, who dates back to the 5th century BC. lived. By this time the great age of tragedy ruled by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides had dawned. AGE OF TRAGEDY. The great age of tragedy was short. It began with Thespis, but the oldest surviving tragedy is Aeschylus' The Persians, written in 472 BC. was staged. It ends with the deaths of Sophocles and Euripides just before the Athenians' defeat in the Peloponnesian War. Other surviving plays are seven plays by Aeschylus, seven by Sophocles plus a satyr play (The Trackers), and seventeen by Euripides plus a satyr play (The Cyclopes). There is also Rhesus, the smallest Greek tragedy we have, which may have come from Euripides. Other tragedians whose work is now lost are Phrynicus, Choerilus and Pratinas, all of whom wrote before Aeschylus, and the sons of Phrynicus and Pratinas, who belonged to the generation of Aeschylus and Sophocles. Aeschylus' son Euphorion also performed tragedies. TRAGEDY BEFORE THE SQUIRREL. Aeschylus was the first playwright to add a second speaking actor, and Sophocles added a third. Before Aeschylus, when there was only one actor, the chorus must have played a very important role in the development of the drama's plot. One

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the verse Music is a term whose meaning is obvious to everyone.

Aristotle on Tragedy and Comedy Introduction:

The great Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC) wrote in his Poetics on the subject of tragedy, along with many other subjects. In the following excerpt he discusses the main components of the tragedy.

Tragedy, then, is the presentation of an action worthy of serious attention, self-contained, and of some magnitude; in a language enriched by a variety of artistic resources appropriate to the different parts of the work; presented in the form of action, not narrative; through pity and fear causing a purging of such emotions. By rich language I mean language containing rhythm, music or song; and by artistic means appropriate to the various parts I mean that some are created solely by verse, and others again by means of song. Now that the performance is performed by the people who perform the actions, it follows, first, that spectacle is an essential part of tragedy, and second, that song and expression are required, since these are the means of performance. By diction I mean arrangement here

One of Aeschylus' tragedies, The Supplicants, fits this pattern. At the same time, scholars believed that it existed before the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. took place. C., where Aeschylus fought as an infantryman in the Athenian battle line against the invading Persians, but beneath the large deposit of papyrus discovered at Oxyrhynchus in Egypt is a small fragment which has disturbed the early dating of the supplicants. It now seems likely that it was in the Dionysian city of 462 BC. took place. The late date of Supplicants shows that Aeschylus did not feel the need to follow the latest fashions on the stage. THE PERSIANS. 480 BC The Persian Empire launched a major land and sea invasion of Greece, led by King Xerxes himself, and ended in complete defeat. The decisive point was the Greek victory at Salamis, and the Athenians had some right to claim victory for themselves, for although the admiral of the Greek allied fleet was a Spartan, the Athenian navy provided by far the largest contingent. The Persians is an imaginary depiction of the impact of the Persian defeat on the Persians themselves. Set in the Persian capital of Susa, the play features a chorus of Persian advisers, splendidly dressed. Xerxes' mother, Atossa, relates a disturbing dream

In tragedy, action is imitated, and that action is performed by actors who necessarily have certain characteristics of both character and thought, by which we also define the nature of the actions. So thought and character are the two natural causes of action, and all people depend on them for success or failure. The presentation of the action is the action of the tragedy; for the orderly arrangement of events is what I mean by action. Character, on the other hand, allows us to define the nature of the participants, and thoughts arise in what they say when proving a point or expressing an opinion. So every tragedy inevitably has six components that determine its quality. They are action, character, expression, thought, spectacle and song. Of these, two represent the means by which action is represented, one concerns the form of representation, and three are connected with the objects of representation; besides them, nothing else is needed. SOURCE:

Aristotle, "On the Art of Poetry", in Classical Literary Criticism. Trans. TS Dorsch (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1965): 38-39.

and receives consolation from the choir. A messenger comes with news of the defeat of the Persian fleet. His description of the naval battle at Salamis was masterful and must make the hearts of Athenians beat faster with pride. Atossa brings offerings to the tomb of Darius, the wise old king who was the father of Xerxes, and Darius' ghost appears. He describes how the power and wealth of the Persian Empire blinded the foolish Xerxes and prophesies of destruction. Finally, Xerxes takes the stage, his royal robes in tatters, and the drama ends with a lament sung in antiphon by Xerxes and the chorus. This was first class patriotic drama, but it does not belittle the Persians; except for Xerxes himself, all Persian characters are dignified and noble. However, the theme was familiar: the man, blinded by his pride and greatness, suffers an unexpected defeat. THE SEVEN AGAINST THEBAS. The Seven Against Thebes was the last and only surviving work in a trilogy dealing with the curse of the royal house of Thebes. The story provided Sophocles with the material for three great tragedies, the tyrant Oedipus, Antigone and Oedipus at Colonus. According to the story, Laios, king of Thebes, finds friends in exile

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sing a lament The message of the piece is highly fatalistic and suggests that nothing can stand in the way of a fate that is about to happen.

Imaginative portrait of the tragedian Aeschylus.

AP/WIDTH

PHOTOS OF THE WORLD. REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION.

Pelops, but falls in love with his benefactor's son, Chrysippus, and kidnaps him; The fact puts a curse on Laius and his family, in which his son is destined to kill him. In the second lost play of this trilogy, Oedipus, Laius is actually murdered by his son Oedipus. The curse extends to Oedipus' own sons, Polynices and Eteocles, when they reach adulthood and agree to divide the rule of Thebes among themselves, each reigning in alternate years. While Polynices reigns and resigns during his regnal year, Eteocles renounces the agreement and refuses to resign after his regnal year. To regain the throne, Polynices gathers an army led by seven heroes, one for each of the seven gates of Thebes, and besieges the city. At the beginning of this siege, Seven Against Thebes begins. Each of the seven heroes in Polynices' army leads an attack on the designated gate, which in turn is defended by six champions chosen by Eteocles. he himself defends the gate attacked by his brother Polynices. Although the play's theme is action-packed and violent, the Greek audience was unaware of the battle that took place backstage, while onstage the choir sang of the terrible curse hanging over the house. A messenger informs the public about the outcome of the conflict; the city was saved, but Eteocles and Polynices killed each other, making the chorus 146

SUBSTITUTE WOMEN. The Suplicant Women is part of a trilogy of three tragedies that modern critics conveniently call the Danaid Trilogy. Only the first work of the trilogy, Supplicating Women, survives, but we know the titles of the following two works: The Egyptians and the Danaids (the 'Daughters of Danaus'). The myth underlying the play was familiar to the Athenians: the fifty sons of Egypt (meaning "Egypt") force the fifty daughters of the Egyptian brother Danaus (meaning "Greek") to marry them, and the daughters flee Egypt. with his father to seek refuge in Argos, his ancestral homeland. At the beginning of the play, the daughters are in Argos, asking for sanctuary from Pelasgos, king of Argos (hence the 'supplicants' in the title). Risking war with Egypt, the Pelasgians and Argives agree to give them sanctuary and challenge the pursuing sons of Aegyptus. The fifty daughters function as a chorus in this work, although there are probably twelve female singers, the standard size for tragic choruses. After defeating the Egyptians, Danaus gives his daughters fatherly advice: Follow your father's orders. The full weight of this advice is confirmed in the last two works of the now-lost trilogy, in which the sons of Egypt succeed in marrying the daughters of Danaus and Danaus directs his daughters to kill their husbands on their wedding nights. . Everyone knows her except Hypermestra, the only daughter who fell in love with her Egyptian husband, Lynceus; she obeys the demands of love in place of her father. A fragment survives from the last work of the trilogy: a speech by the goddess of love, Aphrodite, who glorifies love as the generating principle of the universe. THE ORESTEIA. The Oresteia is the only surviving complete trilogy by Aeschylus, consisting of Agamemnon, the Libations and the Eumenides. The trilogy is about a constitutional blood feud. A Trojan war hero, Agamemnon, had sacrificed his own daughter before going to war to ensure favorable winds for the voyage. This act sets off a chain reaction of revenge killings as, upon their return from Troy, Agamemnon is killed by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover, and their son Orestes later kills the murderous couple. Morally corrupted by his matricide, Orestes is pursued by the Furies until he is tried in Athens before the ancient Council of Areopagus. The council had recently been stripped of most of its power when the Oresteia took place, but it still served

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as a murder court. The Furies argue that under the Blood Law, Orestes must pay the penalty for matricide. The gods intervene, with Athena presiding as judge and Apollo speaking in defence. The juries are split evenly, with Athena casting the deciding vote. She notes that since murdering a father trumps murdering a mother, Orestes was not wrong in putting his mother to death for murdering his father. The decision implies the replacement of a matriarchal society with a patriarchal one, although whether or not this is the hidden purpose of this work is open to endless debate. Anyway, the Furies are outraged, but Athena offers them a place in her city as good spirits to control crime under her new rule. The Furies agree and become "graceful goddesses" under the new rule of law replacing the law of "an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth". PROMETEUS LINK. Prometheus Bound is considered the last work of Aeschylus. The story retells the myth of Prometheus, a titan who incurs the wrath of Zeus for secretly bestowing the gift of fire on mortal men whom Zeus despised, and would have it replaced with a more perfect cause if he did would have left with her. For his rebellion against Zeus, Prometheus was condemned to be chained to a rock forever and have his liver devoured by an eagle every day. Prometheus' immortality as a Titan provided for the endless torture of his punishment, as his liver grew every day only to be devoured again by the eagle. The drama ends with an earthquake (how the then "special effects" department managed to pull it off is a matter of conjecture) and Prometheus and his stone sink underground as the choir escapes. Despite overwhelming power, Prometheus remains a man of principle. This ending breaks the myth, but we do know that the trilogy had two more works and ended with the peace between Zeus and Prometheus. The supremacy of Zeus is recognized, but also the right of mankind to exist and live under the rule of law and free from violence. SOPHOCLES. During his long life, which lasted from about 496 to about 406 B.C. C. Sophocles wrote 123 plays, seven of which survive together with an incomplete satirical work discovered on a papyrus. This abridged catalog of works gives only a small insight into his development as a playwright. By all accounts, he was high-born, handsome, and devout, and took an active part in public life. He introduced the convention of a third actor in tragedy productions early in his career (earlier tragedies had only two actors with a chorus), and Aeschylus soon followed suit, including three actors in his Oresteia. Sophocles also introduced scenarios from some

Imaginative portrait of Sophocles.

S.A./CORBIS.

to separate. The recurring theme of his tragedies is the suffering of men and women, sometimes self-inflicted suffering due to flaws in character or suffering resulting from being in the wrong place at the wrong time. AJAX. Ajax is considered by most scholars to be Sophocles' first tragedy and centers around the legend of Ajax's suicide. According to Homer's Iliad, after Achilles, the hero Ajax was the strongest warrior in the Greek army that fought at Troy. After the death of Achilles there is a dispute as to who is the most valuable hero in the Greek army and therefore worthy of inheriting his armour. Ajax loses the competition to fellow war mate Ulysses and goes mad with disappointment. In his madness, he attacks what he believes to be the Greek camp, and early in the game rejoices over the supposed deaths of Odysseus and two of the Greek champions, Agamemnon and Menelaus. Coming to his senses, he realizes that instead of ambushing the Greek camp, he has ambushed a flock of sheep, and is so overcome with shame that he commits suicide. His death was dishonorable, and so the question arises as to what type of burial Ajax should have. His half-brother Teucer is determined to see him buried honorably, but Menelaus and Agamemnon forget him.

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ANTIGONE'S SPEECH IN DEFENSE OF CONSCIOUSNESS INTRODUCTION:

In Sophocles' tragedy Antigone, the conscience of the individual and the demands of the state collide. The title character Antigone is on trial for burying her brother Polynices, against the decree of Creon, king of Thebes, who ordered him to be left unburied for leading an invasion of Thebes. The burial rite, which consisted only of sprinkling a few handfuls of earth over the corpse, allowed the spirit of the deceased to enter the house of Hades. In war, there was a regular truce after a battle so each side could bury its own dead. A dead soldier's family would be shocked and distraught if he could remain unburied. However, there was no such obligation to bury the enemy dead, and Creon considered Polynices an enemy. For Antigone, however, Polynices is her brother no matter what he has done, and her conscience demands that she bury him. In this speech Antigone challenges Creon and defends his right to obey his own conscience and not the law of the state. Antigone's obedience to her conscience is admirable in modern terms, but in ancient Greece her actions went against the cherished Greek maxims of "abundance in abundance" and "moderation in all things." Both Antigone and Creon hold excessive and inflexible views, and their excess leads to Antigone's destruction; Creon's son Haimon, who was betrothed to Antigone; and Creon's wife, who commits suicide. The play ends with Creon bowing in pain.

ask because Ajax's intention was to kill her even though he couldn't. The dispute is settled when Odysseus successfully argues that grudges must be forgotten. There's a great variety of characters here: Ajax, lost in his own troubles; Menelaus and Agamemnon, small and narrow-minded men; and Odysseus, who allows his mind to overcome any grudges he feels and realizes that the art of governing requires magnanimity. Ajax demonstrate the value of true political skill. ANTIGONE. Antigone is a dark work with a disturbing message. The attack on Thebes dramatized in Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes is over, and the two warring brothers, Polynices and Eteocles, are dead. Creon, the new king of Thebes, orders Polynices to remain unburied because he died a traitor attacking his homeland . However, Polynices' sister, Antigone, disobeys and gives Polynices' body a formal burial, i.e. she strews earth over his corpse. He challenges Creon in a great speech and claims his 148th throne

Creon: Do you know the command that forbids such an act? ANTIGONE Of course I knew. It was pretty clear. Creon: And yet you dared to transgress it? Antigone: Yes. This command did not come from God. Justice He who dwells among the gods knows no such law. I didn't think your edicts were strong enough to overrule the immutable and unwritten laws of God and heaven as long as you're only human. They are not from yesterday or today, but eternal, although none of us can say where they come from. No one on earth can blame me for your transgression before God. I knew, of course, that I must die with or without his orders. If it's soon, all the better. As I live in daily agony, who would not like to die? This punishment will not be pain. Only if I had left my mother's son unburied would I not have been able to endure it. I can take it. Sounds silly to you? Or are you stupid to judge me like that? SOURCE: Sophocles, Antigone, in Thetheban Plays. Trans. EF Watling (Harmondsworth, England: The Penguin Classics, 1947): 138-139.

Right to place divine laws above the man-made rules of a state. Creon condemns her to be locked alive in a vault for her disobedience, but when the seer Tiresias warns him that the city is being desecrated by the unburied body of Polynices, he reluctantly repents and sets out to free Antigone . However, it is too late as she hanged herself. His son Haemon, who was engaged to Antigone, commits suicide, as does Creon's queen upon learning what happened. Creon leaves the stage a broken man. Two stubborns faced each other: one, Creon, defending a state's right to enforce its laws, and the other, Antigone, defending the individual's right to follow his conscience. Both follow their plans and both suffer, although Antigone achieves some martyrdom. There are no clear winners in this battle of wills, however, and the message of the play seems to be that one person's refusal to accept another's point of view can bring bad luck to both of them. TYRANUS OEDIPUS. In his tyrant Oedipus, Sophocles returns to the myth of the curse that hung

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about the royal house of Thebes, but the setting is a generation before Antigone. A plague has swept through Thebes, and an oracle from Delphi reveals that the cause is moral defilement: the murderer of Laius, who ruled Thebes before Oedipus, goes unpunished. The Athenians in the audience knew from the myth underlying the play that the murderer is Oedipus himself, a fact he is unaware of because he was unaware that the man he had killed, Laius, was his father . He compounded his crime by marrying Laius' widow, Jocasta, unaware that she was his own mother. In his ignorance, Oedipus asks everyone to tell him what information they have about the crime and curses the murderer and anyone who gives him shelter. He sends for the blind seer Tiresias so he can feel it. Tiresias does not want to say what he knows at first, but Oedipus's insistence irritates him and he tells Oedipus very clearly that he is his father's murderer and his mother's husband. Oedipus doesn't believe him. He suspects that Tiresias is a tool of Creon, his wife's brother, who wants to depose him. Jocasta assures Oedipus that he need not fear the oracles, citing as evidence of his unreliability the fact that an oracle warned Laius, her ex-husband, that her son would kill him. Like Oedipus, she bases her confidence on ignorance, believing that robbers killed Laius while travelling. Jocastes' attempt to calm him has the opposite effect, for the same oracle at Delphi had told Oedipus that he was destined to kill his father and marry his mother, and now he suspects the truth. This is called an incident: a push in a direction that does the opposite of what was expected. Then Oedipus learns that the man he believed to be his father, Polybus of Corinth, died and not at the hands of Oedipus; Oedipus is relieved as he believes the oracle is wrong. Then the truth is revealed that Polybus wasn't really his father, leading Oedipus to discover the whole truth. His wife/mother Jocasta is actually the first to recognize the terrible truth and hangs herself in horror. When Oedipus realizes the terrible truth and sees Jocasta's lifeless body, he rips out his eyes to put out the light. The tyrant Oedipus is the most famous Greek tragedy for two reasons. The first is its structure: the action is condensed, one scene logically follows the preceding one, and Sophocles' dramatic irony, for which he was famous, heightens the suspense until the final resolution. But the second reason for his fame is the multiple messages he projects. It seems to be a fate drama; Oedipus is doomed to kill his father and marry his mother, and although he takes steps to avoid his fate, he cannot. But on the other hand, it is Oedipus' determination to examine Laius.

Death and discovers the cause of the plague, leading to the revelation of the horrific truth he inadvertently blames for his own downfall. After all, this is a play that has attracted psychologists. Sigmund Freud, the father of modern psychology, argued that it expresses a young man's subconscious desire to kill his father and mate with his mother, a primitive desire repressed because it is taboo in civilized society. Freud called this suppressed pleasure the "Oedipus complex," although this psychological aspect probably did not occur to Sophocles when he wrote the play. His drama focuses on the horror with which the Greeks viewed patricide and incest. THREE SUBSEQUENT TREGODIES. The three tragedies, entitled Elektra, The Women of Trachis and Philoctetes, don't create the same suspense as Sophocles' masterpiece, but they are good plays. Elektra uses the same myth of Aeschylus' libations, but the general tenor is very different. While the version of Aeschylus presents Orestes' murder of his mother as a terrible crime in which the Furies pursue him, Orestes' murder of Clytemnestra in Elektra is merely a reward for his crime of murdering Agamemnon. The title character is Orestes' sister, and she lives a life of revenge because she has dedicated herself to her father's memory and lives in the hope that her brother Orestes will return home and kill Clitaemnestra and her lover. But Sophocles does not have as great a problem as Aeschylus dealing with the same myth. Sophocles' characters are ordinary people caught in an extraordinary situation. The women of Trachis dramatize the myth of the death of Heracles. Heracles has taken the city of Oechalia, and his servant Lichas brings the captives of Oechalia to Heracles' house in Trachis, including Iole, whose beauty is remarkable. Heracles' wife Deianeira is a good wife by the standards of the time, but when Lichas blurts out that Iole is Heracles' new wife, she believes she is losing her husband's love. She sends Heracles a garment anointed with a love potion, unaware that the love potion is poisonous. Heracles wears the clothes and burns the flesh. Hyllus, Deianira's son, curses her for causing his father's death, and Deianira hangs himself. Hercules climbs onto the stage asleep, but soon wakes up in excruciating pain. He learns the truth about Deianira from Hyllus and commands their pyre on Mount Oeta. Philoctetes focuses on the conflict between two characters, Neoptolemus, the young and honorable son of Achilles, and the ancient and cunning Odysseus. The hero Philoctetes, possessor of the Arch of Heracles, had been left on a desert island by the Greek army on the way to Troy because he was suffering from ailments

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from an incurable ulcer caused by a snake bite. However, the Greeks discover that they cannot take Troy unless they possess the Bow of Hercules, which belongs to Philoctetes. Neoptolemus and Odysseus travel to the island of Philoctetes, and Neoptolemus reluctantly agrees to accept a trick Odysseus proposes to take Philoctetes' bow and then relinquish it again. But when Neoptolemus receives the bow, he is so moved by Philoctetes' despair that he returns it, despite Odysseus' protestations. The work ends with an epiphany of Heracles ordering Philoctetes to sail to Troy where Asclepius will heal him. The ending is unusual for Sophocles in that it involves a deus ex machina, i.e. a god, in this case Heracles, who is lowered onto the stage in a basket by a rope attached to a crane to set things right . The resolution of the drama does not develop out of the action, but is brought about by divine intervention. OEDIPUS IN COLONUS. The last and longest surviving work of Sophocles deals with the death and apotheosis of Oedipus, i.e. his acceptance among the gods. It's also a play that requires four actors; Sophocles, who early in his career introduced the innovation of using three speaking actors, adds a fourth here. Oedipus, now old, blind and helpless, cared for by his daughter Antigone in exile, arrives in Colonus, on the outskirts of Athens, Sophocles' hometown. There he recognizes the precinct of the Venerable Goddesses as the place where he is to die. His daughter Ismene arrives and tells him that her son Polynices is about to attack Thebes and Creon wants Oedipus back because he has been told that his presence in Thebes will save the city. Theseus, king of Athens, accepts Oedipus as a resident of Athens. Creon arrives and tries to persuade Oedipus to come and live outside the Theban borders, and when Oedipus refuses, his assistants attempt to drag Antigone and Ismene away, only to be thwarted by Theseus. Then Polynices comes and asks Oedipus for help. Oedipus hears what he has to say and responds with a solemn curse. Lightning warns Oedipus that his time is near. He calls Theseus again and together they leave the stage. A messenger comes to report that Oedipus has disappeared. Only Theseus knows what happened, and his knowledge is the exclusive domain of the kings of Athens. This work was probably written shortly before Sophocles' own death in 406 BC. written. EURIPIDES. For Euripides, the last in the triad of great classical tragedians, the most important thing in drama was the character. He tasted the deepest feelings of his heroes and heroines. The great questions of fate and the nature of justice were not for him. Instead, he bet the 150

Character of a hero or heroine under stress to see how they would react. The fact that he frequently used heroines may have been the reason for his misogynist reputation among his contemporaries. In his greatest work, Medea, written in 431 B.C. C., the first year of the Peloponnesian War, depicts a woman who has been terribly wronged by her husband and seeks revenge. The myth was well known: the hero Jason had sailed to Colchis in search of the Golden Fleece and found it only with the help of the Princess of Colchis Medea, who took it to Greece. When the play begins, Jason and Medea have settled in Corinth. Jason has become a comfortable member of Corinthian society and his foreign wife Medea has become an embarrassment, especially now that Jason has the chance to marry the king's daughter. Jason, the completely egocentric, argues with Medea that it is better for everyone if he throws her away and enters into this beneficial marriage. Medea sees it differently. She destroys the king's daughter and king along with her, then kills her children and disappears in a fiery chariot sent by her grandfather, the sun god. The drama ends with a supernatural intervention - the kind of ending she liked. what was criticized. ALKESTIS. Eighteen plays by Euripides survive, including a satyr play, The Cyclops, and a drama, The Alcestis, written in 438 BC. was staged. and which, as the fourth drama of a tetralogy, has taken the place of a satire. It's not a tragedy. Instead, he refers to Menander's New Comedy, written a century later, when Euripides was the tragedian whose plays were most often re-enacted. The story of Alceste is a popular tale that follows this pattern: a man learns that he must die at a certain time unless someone else dies in his place. In Euripides' play, Admetus, king of Pherae in Thessaly, possessed of all conventional virtues, is the man who discovers his destiny and tries to find someone who will accept it. Her parents refuse because they want the last years of their lives to themselves. However, his wife Alcestis agrees to die in his place. Admetus accepts his wife's sacrifice and, having done it, realizes that he was not brave at all. However, he is ready to live and forgets all the virtuous resolutions he made to save his conscience. Alcestis is saved from death by the hero Heracles, who fights Thanatos, the god of death, to bring her back to life. The characters are brilliantly drawn, especially Hercules who has a gigantic appetite for food and drink. The further development of the character of Herakles as a joker owes much to Euripides. The play ends happily, although a modern reader might

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I think Admetus will have to explain a few things the next time he speaks to his wife. THE HORRIBLENESS OF PASSION. Hippolytus, made in 428 BC. B.C., shows a woman stressed by passion and a man obsessed with virtue. Phaedra, the young wife of Theseus, falls head over heels in love with her stepson Hippolytus, who loves nature and is not interested in sex. Phaedra's nurse offers herself as a mediator and proposes Hippolytus to her. Hippolytus reacts in disgust and Phaedra, overcome with shame, commits suicide, leaving Theseus a note accusing Hippolytus of improper advances. Furious with jealousy, Theseus tells his father Poseidon to punish his son, and Poseidon sends a sea monster to flee, terrorizing the chariot horses of Hippolytus. Hippolytus is thrown from the car and mortally wounded. Theseus learns the truth about his son's innocence and the two are reconciled shortly before Hippolytus' death. Phaedra is devastated by her desire for sexual love while Hippolytus is devastated by her obsession with chastity. Hecuba, written three years after Hippolytus, shows another woman, this time distressed by the catastrophe of defeat. Troy fell, Hecuba, wife of the king of Troy, was enslaved and saw her daughter Polyxena sacrificed to the spirit of Achilles. Now he learns of the murder of his last son Polydoros, who had been entrusted to Priam's ally, the Thracian king Polymestor, to be kept safe. Discovering Troy's downfall, Polymestor kills Polydoros and throws his body into the sea. Calamity transforms Hecuba from a fallen queen into a heartbroken mother out for revenge. She makes a desperate plea to the victor, Agamemnon, and, having won his cooperation, lures Polymestor into her tent, where she and their wives kill his two sons in front of him, blinding him. The play ends with Polymestor being banished to a deserted island and the old queen leaving to bury her dead. WAR PROPAGANDA. The popularity of Athenian theater spread beyond Athens itself, even in the midst of the bitter Peloponnesian War that split Greece into two warring sides, all anxious to justify themselves. Many of Euripides' plays written during the war had a message for both combatants, and Sparta and Delphi (a Spartan ally) tend to fare poorly. It is true to call these works war propaganda, since Athens did not intentionally mobilize its tragic poets to produce works conducive to its aims. However, Andromache seems to have been inspired by a Spartan atrocity that took place in the early years of the war, and one of Euripides' early commentators reports that it did not take place in Athens. He

Bust of the Athenian tragedian Euripides.

ORIGIN/BODY.

The question of where the work was created leaves two possibilities: on the one hand, Argos, neighboring Sparta, where Athens wanted to arouse anti-Spartan sentiments; the other was the kingdom of Epirus in northwestern Greece, which had a young king who was educated in Athens. The plot deals with the aftermath of the Trojan War. When the spoils of Troy were divided, Andromache, the captive wife of Hector, went to Achilles' son Neoptolemus, also called Pyrrhus, whom the kings of Epirus claimed as their ancestor, and she went home with him and bore him a son. As the play begins, Menelaus and Helen's daughter, Hermione, has married Neoptolemus, and Andromache is no longer welcome in the Neoptolemus household. Presenting himself as a typically cruel, incredulous and boastful Spartan, Menelaus plans to kill Andromache and her son in cold blood while Neoptolemus is at Delphi. She is saved by the intervention of Peleus, Neoptolemus' elderly grandfather. Then devastating news arrives; Neoptolemus was ambushed at Delphi and killed by a group of gunmen acting under orders from Orestes, another Spartan. The Delphians, whose fondness for Sparta during the Peloponnesian War was no secret, prove to be an insidious gang in Andromache. The Sons of Hercules is even more anti-Spartan. The Dorians claimed to be Heraclides, that is,

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descendants of Heracles, and the Spartans were essentially Dorians. The children of Hercules and their mother Alcmene flee from their old enemy Eurystheus in Marathon on Athenian territory. Eurystheus is captured and the vengeful Alcmene insists that he be killed. Before dying, he promises the Athenians that if they give him an honorable burial, he will be their friend when the ungrateful descendants of Heraclides, i.e. the Dorians, invade, a clear reference to the Peloponnesian War when the Spartans were uniting lead intruder. Army in Attica to destroy crops in the early years of the war. The likewise anti-Spartan supplicants end with the oath of Adrastus of Argos never to invade Athenian territory and to prevent enemies from doing so. In the year 420 BC C., Athens and Argos negotiated an alliance, and the Oath of Adrastus sounds like an indication of that. But a few years later, in 415 B.C. B.C., when Euripides' Trojan Women were presented in the Dionysian city in March, on the eve of the disastrous departure of the Sicilian expedition, it is the brutality of the war that weighs heavily on Euripides. The year before, an Athenian force had taken the small island of Melos in the Aegean, slaughtering the men and selling the women and children into slavery. Las Troyanas depicts the plight of the women captured at the fall of Troy, but Euripides takes a liberty with traditional mythology: he has Hecuba accuse Helena of being a war criminal so eloquently that Menelaus decides to execute her when he arrives in Sparta, although in Troy a long war was fought to restore her to him, her lawful husband. THE HERAKLES. In the Renaissance this work was called Hercules Furens ("The Madness of Heracles"). In the play, Lycus has become the tyrant of Thebes and is about to kill Heracles' wife Megara and their children. Heracles arrives just in time to save his family and kill Lycus. Then his enemy, the goddess Hera, inflicts madness on Heracles and he kills his wife and children. As the madness leaves him, he falls asleep only to wake up with the news of what he has done. But Theseus, whom Heracles rescued from Hades, comforts his friend and offers him asylum in Athens. There is no reliable date for this work, but 414 BC. C., when the Athenians still had high hopes for their expedition to Sicily, it's a good possibility. HAPPY END. Euripides did not always end his works in tragedy. Iphigenia in Tauris, Ion and Helen have a happy ending. The first examines the myth of Agamemnon's daughter Iphigenia, who sacrificed Agamemnon to the gods so that they would grant favorable winds to the Greek fleet to sail from Aulis to Troy. An alternate version of Myth 152

he had the goddess Artemis save Iphigenia at the last moment and bring her to Tauris to be his priestess there. While in Tauris, he recognizes his brother Orestes and his friend being held captive by the Taurians. She plans to save them from the bullfight and does so with the help of the goddess Athena. The second non-tragedy, Ion, has a new comedy-style plot in which a child conceived by rape faces death, only to be rescued and reunited with his parents years later. In this work, Ion is the son of a rape committed by the god Apollo of the unjustly treated heroine Creusa, daughter of King Erechtheus of Athens. Fearing the wrath of his parents, Creusa secretly exposes Ion to the elements and leaves him for dead, but Apollo takes the boy to his temple at Delphi, where he becomes a devout temple servant, little aware of the evils of the outside world. At the beginning of the play, Creusa and her husband Xuthus arrive at Delphi to consult the oracle about her inability to father a child, and their arrival at the temple where Ion serves threatens to reveal the truth about Ion's paternity. To save Apollo's reputation, the Oracle attempts to impose Ion on Xuthus, and Creusa, fearful for her own future with an unwanted stepson in her home (unaware that it is her real son), attempts to kill Ion. The plot is discovered and Ion and Delphi are about to kill the Creusa Stone when the ancient priestess of Apollo who raised Ion arrives with the cradle and clothes she wore when she first conceived him and Creusa them recognizes as their own. Abandoned Son Everything is resolved with the help of Athena, who explains that she came in Apollo's place because Apollo is ashamed to admit Creusa's injury. Posing as an ordinary politician who has become embroiled in a sex scandal, Apollo is attempting what would nowadays be called a "cover-up." The message is that organized religions cannot claim special privileges when it comes to moral standards. Helen explores an alternative myth about Helen of Troy invented by the Sicilian poet Stesichorus. Paris did not bring Helen to Troy. Instead, headwinds drove his ship to Egypt, where Helen stayed and only an ectoplasmic facsimile of Helen made it to Troy. Returning home from the Trojan War, Menelaus is shipwrecked off the coast of Egypt and is surprised to find Helen there. The facsimile he made of Troy simply evaporates. This fantastic drama ends with Menelaus and Helen fleeing Egypt, where the king had a nasty habit of killing every Greek he landed. There is nothing tragic about Helen. The myth he tells is just a beautiful story with comic elements.

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FOUR MELODRAMAS. With Elektra, made around 413 BC. EG and Orestes (408 BCE), Euripides returned to the familiar theme of revenge for the murder of Agamemnon. In Electra, neither Electra nor Orestes are completely sane. Euripides' addition to the legend is Elektra's marriage to a respectable peasant; Her mother Clytemnestra gave her to a man of low rank to prevent her from bearing children of high status to embarrass the royal house of Mycenae. Despite the marriage, Electra remains a virgin. Electra and her brother Orestes plot to murder Clytaemnestra for killing their father Agamemnon and mercilessly executing him. His mood then shifts to hysterical remorse. But Castor and Polydeukes, the brothers of Clytemnestra and now also divine beings, appear and bring order: Orestes goes to Athens, his friend Pylades marries Elektra, and Apollo could be to blame for the matricide. In Orestes we have a series of unpleasant characters: Orestes, who is insane; Electra, whose only redeeming quality is her devotion to her brother; Menelaus; Helena; his daughter Hermione; old Tyndaro, who is Helena's father; and faithful Pylades. Elektra and Orestes are sentenced to death for the murder of Clytaemnestra, but are given the privilege of killing each other. They then conspire to kill Helen, who mysteriously disappears, so they take Hermione hostage to force Menelaus to intervene. Menelaus finds Orestes with a knife at Hermione's throat while Electra and Pylades burn down the palace. Apollo intervenes and explains that everything has changed for the better. The Phoenician Women is a play about the sons of Oedipus who died fighting in Thebes. Jocasta, still alive despite her suicide at the end of Sophocles' tyrant Oedipus, tries to prevent the duel between Polynices and Eteocles, but arrives too late and commits suicide over their dead bodies. Iphigenia in Aulis was a play that Euripides never finished, but someone else provided the missing parts and it was performed after his death. It tells the story of Iphigenia's sacrifice and the text ends with a messenger coming to denounce him. The characterization is great. Agamemnon is indecisive and terribly disturbed by the idea of sacrificing Iphigenia to gain favorable winds to sail to Troy, but his army is mad for battle. It is important for Menelaus to continue the war. Clytemnestra brought Iphigenia to Aulis because Agamemnon sent her a misleading message that he wanted to marry her to Achilles. Achilles emerges from the story as an honorable warrior. Angered at the misuse of his name, he prepares to defend Iphigenia. But then Iphigenia herself offers to die as her patriotic duty, and Achilles leaves, vowing to defend her should she change her mind.

THE DRUM. Either 408 B.C. CE o Early the following year Euripides left Athens for the court of King Archelaus of Macedonia, and there he produced The Bacchae, his last drama, which is generally recognized as a masterpiece. The story comes from a Theban legend that tells how Pentheus, the grandson of Cadmus, the founder of Thebes, opposed and suffered for the coming of the god Dionysus (also known as Bacchus). Dioniso himself explains the situation in the prologue of the work: he was said to have returned to the city where he was born and his mother's sisters, including Agave, the mother of Penteo, dudaron at the beginning, but then they were defeated by the Bacchanal frenzy and now they are on the mountain. Cithaeron, where he is on his way to join them. Then two old men, Cadmus and Tiresias, enter the stage. They too join the followers of Dionysus and Pentheus cannot stop them. Then a servant arrives with a mysterious prisoner who is never identified, but when Pentheus locks him in the palace stables, the palace collapses as if struck by an earthquake, and the stranger comes out and faces Pentheus' threats with cool confidence. A messenger comes with an account of the incredible celebration of the women on the mountain, and the stranger persuades Pentheus to disguise himself and witness. Shortly after Pentheus leaves the stage, news arrives that the women have arrested him and torn him to pieces. Then Agave arrives, still under the spell of her frenzy, wearing what she believes to be a lion's head. It's actually the head of Pentheus. Cadmus brings her to her senses and she bursts into lamentations, which Dionysus interrupts by reappearing and justifying his vengeance on the infidels; Much of his speech was lost. The work raised many questions. Did Euripides attack or defend the religion of Dionysus? Who was the mysterious stranger Pentheus was trying to imprison? In any case, one thing is certain: Euripides, whose attitude towards conventional religion was often characterized by cynicism, recognizes its frightening power here. Lost in the wild ecstasy of the Dionysian cult, Pentheus' mother Agave becomes a tragic figure: a mother who has killed her beloved son. Dionysus himself does not hesitate to be ruthless when cruelty helps spread his religion. The message seems to be that mass religion is a force to be reckoned with. SOURCES

JAS Evans, "A Reading of Sophocles' Ajax", Urban Journal of Classical Culture 33 (1991): 69-85. John Ferguson, A Companion to Greek Tragedy (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972). HDF Kitto, Greek Tragedy: A Literary Study (London, England: Methuen, 1939).

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B. M. W. Knox, Oedipus in Thebes (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1957). Richmond Lattimore, Geschichtenmuster in der Greicheschen Tragödie (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1964). A. Lesky, Greek Tragic Poetry (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1983). Gilbert Norwood, Tragédia Grega. 4th ed. (London, England: Methuen, 1948). Jacqueline de Romilly, La Tragédie Grecque (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1973). Brian Vickers, Toward Greek Tragedy (London, England; New York: Longman, 1979).

THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEECH IN EARLY GREECE. Greece admired a good speaker who could effectively present his point in front of a gathering of men or take a case to court. According to tradition, public speaking as an art was first practiced in Syracuse, Sicily, in the years before the mid-fifth century BC. maintained. Syracuse was ruled by tyrants, and many legal disputes followed his downfall, which challenged the oratory skills of various people at court. The art is said to have first appeared in 527 BC. B.C. Imported from Sicily to Athens. During a diplomatic visit to Athens, Gorgias of Sicily captivated the Athenians with his rhetorical skills. Gorgias became a famous sophist, that is, a teacher who taught the skills necessary for public speaking, and was known for his high fees. However, the Athenians were willing to pay the fees, since public speaking was a valuable skill in Athens, not only for a politician speaking before the assembly, but also in court, since neither plaintiffs nor defendants hire lawyers to speak in court could. for her. The best they could do was hire a speechwriter, or a "logographer" as they were called. Speech-writing thus became a lucrative profession, particularly attractive to orators like Lysias, who were foreigners living in Athens and therefore unable to speak in court or assemblies. The pioneering speechwriter was the sophist Antiphon (ca. 480–411 BC). Antiphon first advised citizens involved in legal disputes, but around 430 B.C. He began writing speeches for others to memorize and do. He only spoke once for himself. He was born in 411 BC. accused of high treason. and wrote a speech in his own defense. His speech failed, Antiphon was executed, but he put accents. After him, orators wrote and published their own speeches in court or, less often, in meetings.

Fortunately, rhetoric was in full bloom when Aristotle wrote a treatise on rhetoric, which he classified into three types: forensic, for the courts; advisory, to speak in the assembly; and epidic, for a special occasion like a funeral. THE TEN SPEAKERS. In the great age of oratory, from about 420 to 320 B.C. BC, Athens saw or heard many orators and logographers, but only ten of them were chosen for study by ancient scholars. Speeches by unknown speakers have sometimes survived, mistakenly believed to have been written by one of the Ten. Of the sixty orations attributed to the great orator Demosthenes, only half are genuine. The ten speakers were Antiphon and Andocides, whose careers date back to the fifth century BC. belonged to; Demosthenes and his rival Aeschines; Dinarchus and Lysias, both foreigners residing in Athens; Isaius, whose strength seems to have been inheritance, since all eleven of his surviving orations deal with inheritance; Lycurgus, better known as an Athenian statesman represented by a single speech; Hyperides, who, like Demosthenes, opposed Philip of Macedon and his son Alexander the Great, for which the Macedonians accused him and Demosthenes in 322 BC. condemned to death; and Isocrates, who may have been unhappy about being included in the Ten Orators because he considered himself a philosopher and educator rather than a public speaker. Two of them stand out both for their competence and reputation, and for the number of speeches received. ISOCRATES. The end of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC. Political unrest ensued and Isocrates was apparently on the wrong side when he lost the family property. Isocrates first dabbled in logography to earn a living, but later began teaching, first on the island of Chios and then just before 387 BC. until his death in 338 BC. at the age of 98 in Athens, where students from all over the Greek world attended his school. Among his students were two leading historians of the fourth century B.C. C., Ephorus and Theopompos. Greece at the time of Isocrates was divided into warlike camps; not only did the old powers Athens, Sparta and Thebes fight for supremacy, but new powers such as Thessaly and Macedonia also emerged. Isocrates was not a public speaker. His speeches are actually political pamphlets, but they reveal a coherent political aim. Isocrates advocated an alliance, or perhaps a confederation of states, that would shift the Greek powers from fighting each other within Greece to fighting the Persian Empire, which had regained control of the Greek cities of Asia Minor by the end of the war. . In his panegyric, dated 380 B.C. BC,

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He advocated an alliance led by former enemies Sparta and Athens that would liberate the Greek cities of Asia. 346 BC Isocrates, now 90 years old, addressed an open letter to Philip of Macedon, urging him to lead a panhellenic alliance that would attack Persia. In the year 339 BC C., published his last long work, the Panathenaicus, a lengthy eulogy of Athens. Although he never mentions Philip by name, it seems clear that he still saw him as the champion of Greece. The following year Philip defeated Athens and Thebes on the battlefield of Chaironea, and Isocrates' last work is a post-battle letter to Philip, still urging a campaign against Persia. DEMOSTHENES. Demosthenes is remarkable for two reasons. First, as an Athenian statesman, he vehemently opposed the imperialist ambitions of Philip II of Macedonia, whose son Alexander the Great would continue his father's policies and transform the world of Greece with the conquest of Persia. For this reason, some historians have hailed Demosthenes as the brave defender of Athenian freedom and democracy, while others have condemned him as a dead-end politician mired in the past. Second, he took oratory to new heights, a conclusion few would dispute. His masterpiece was his speech On the Crown in defense of Ctesiphon, one of his supporters who was accused of illegally proposing to honor Demosthenes. The combined armies of Athens and Thebes were defeated in 338 BC. defeated. at the Battle of Chaironea, and it was the anti-Macedonian policy foisted on the Athenians by Demosthenes that led to the disaster. Two years after the defeat, however, Ctesiphon, one of Demosthenes' followers, proposed to the assembly that Demosthenes should receive a golden crown for his merits at the next Feast of Dionysus. The time and place of the bestowal was against the law, and Aeschines, the rival and bitter enemy of Demosthenes, accused Ctesiphon of proposing to attack his true enemy Demosthenes. The fall did not come until 330 BC. in court. Demosthenes rose to address the jury, after the jury had spent all morning listening to Aiskine's argument that this extraordinary honor bestowed on Demosthenes by Ctesiphon was not justified by anti-politics by a great service he had rendered to the state could become. he had promoted ended in disaster. With brilliant sophistication, Demosthenes ignored the legal issues and concentrated on slandering his accuser. He treated the jury to a malicious caricature of Aeskhines' parents, who were very ordinary people, and finally attacked Aeskhines himself by implying that Aeskhines was really responsible for Aeskhines' disaster.

the Battle of Chaironea, which was a perversion of the truth. He ended with a prayer to the gods to protect the state. The speech is a shining example of how to make the worst argument sound better. Demosthenes died in 323 BC. after an anti-Macedonian uprising in Greece. The tough Macedonian general Antipater crushed the rebellion in Athens, and Demosthenes tried to escape punishment by fleeing to the island of Calauria. He sought refuge in a temple, but was poisoned when it became clear that Antipater's men intended to remove him from his sanctuary. SOURCES

Charles D. Adams, Demosthenes und sein Einfluss (Nova York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1963). GL Cawkwell, „A coroação de Demóstenes“, Classical Quarterly 19 (1969): 163–180. Isokrates. Bände I-II. Trans. David C. Mirhady und Yun Lee (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000). David C. Mirhady, „Demosthenes as Advocate: The Private Speeches“, in Demosthenes, Staatsmann und Redner. ed. Ian Worthington (Londres, Inglaterra; Nova York: Routledge, 2000): 181–204. Raphael Sealey, Demosthenes and His Time: A Study in Defeat (Nova York: Oxford University Press, 1993).

GREEK LITERATURE AFTER ALEXANDER THE GREAT A CHANGED WORLD. When Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. died in Babylon. left the Greek world irrevocably changed. The centers of Greek culture shifted from the ancient city-states of Greece to the capitals of the new Hellenistic kingdoms, centers of wealth and power. Athens stood firm in the field of culture, but it was an exception. Egypt became a magnet for the Greeks. After Alexander's death, one of his wisest generals, Ptolemy, secured Egypt as his province and settled in Alexandria. Alexander's youngest son was born in 310 BC. assassinated in 305 B.C. When there was no longer a claim to unity in the empire conquered by Alexander, Ptolemy declared himself king. Ptolemy wanted to make Alexandria a center of Greek culture as Greeks lived side by side with native Egyptians who had an ancient culture of their own and there was very little cross-pollination. Shortly before his death, Ptolemy founded the Great Library of Alexandria, and his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who lived between 285 and 247 BC. C., continued the work. The 263 BC The kingdom of Pergamum, founded in Asia Minor, also established a library, but not Alexandria.

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The Great Library of Alexandria Capital of the kingdom founded by Ptolemy in Egypt, the Library of Alexandria was a legendary institution in ancient times. Estimates of the size of his collection vary widely (between 70,000 and 700,000 books), but any figure within that range is impressive at a time when all books had to be copied by hand. Although neither the first nor the only public library, it was the most influential literary and scientific center of the Hellenistic period for almost two centuries. Ptolemy I founded 280 BC. the Museum (Mouseion) of Alexandria. The English word "museum" is not an exact translation of the Greek mouseion, meaning "house of the muses" who were worshiped in the Museum of Alexandria. The museum was part of the royal palace and a meeting place for scholars, writers, scientists and artists, with a common dining room and what appeared to be living quarters. Attached to the museum was the Great Library or Palace Library, which may also have been founded by Ptolemy I, but the expansion of the collection can be attributed to his son Ptolemy II. There, literary texts by classical authors were published and standard texts were produced; One author who benefited from this scholarly work was Homer, whose Iliad and Odyssey it was

Take a close look at this rival. The Ptolemies cut off Pergamon's supplies of papyrus, but Pergamon developed parchment as a substitute. Alexandria never surrendered its supremacy to the Library of Pergamum, which was neglected after Rome in 133 BC Chr. Pergamon had acquired. CE and it ended when Mark Antony sold Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies, his collection for the Library of Alexandria in the period 40-33 BC. The dynastic capitals of Antioch in Syria and Pella in Macedonia also had important libraries. THE ALEXANDRIANS. Alexandria took the lead in literary development. He promoted a greenhouse culture with no roots in the native Egyptian way of life. The literature produced there was not intended for the masses because the masses did not speak Greek. There was an attempt to cross the Greek and Egyptian traditions; An Egyptian priest, Manetho, wrote a history of Egypt in Greek using Egyptian records in the reign of Ptolemy I, but it was not widely read. Alexandrian poetry was written for an elite Greek-speaking audience and was intended to be read, not performed. Learning was highly valued and didactic poetry, that is, written to instruct, was in vogue. A Poet, Aratus of Soloi, 156

edited by the Alexandrian scholar Aristarchus of Samos, the text of which has survived to modern times. The question of what happened to the library is a matter of debate. Julius Caesar, who reigned from 48 to 47 BC. hibernated. in Alexandria with the young Princess Cleopatra, he became embroiled in the power struggle between her and her brother, books burned in the city's port area. Some scholars date the end of the library to this time. But when Cleopatra became Queen of Egypt, she continued to collect books; Her lover Mark Antony gave her the collection of the ancient Royal Library of Pergamon, once the second largest library in the Mediterranean world. Certainly the palace library survived well into Roman times and there is no reliable evidence as to the date of its destruction. The emperors Caracalla (AD 198–217), Aurelian (AD 270–275), and Diocletian (AD 284–305) wrought significant damage in Alexandria, and some make one or the other for the responsible for the demise of the library. A late legend has it that the Arabs burned the collection when they conquered Alexandria in AD 642. However, what destroyed the library was likely neglect. The papyrus scrolls grew old and brittle. In late antiquity the worn out parchments would have been replaced by codices, bound volumes like modern books, but there was not enough money to cover the cost. The biggest enemy of the collections of the former palace library was probably the natural process of decay.

He was highly acclaimed for writing a book on astronomy in verse. All of his information is second-hand, not being an astronomer himself, and his work has little appeal to a modern reader. Another didactic poet of the same type was Nicander of Colophon, who wrote a poetic work on reptiles and poisonous insects and another on poisons and their antidotes. Poets loved wise and somber allusions. A good example is Lycophron, who belonged to the Pleias, a group of seven poets named after the Pleides constellation. Although none of the tragic dramas of Pleias survive, a poem by Lycophron, Alexandra, survives. It is said to be a long prophecy by Priam of Troy's daughter, Alexandra, better known as Cassandra, who was destined to predict the future and not believe when she predicted it. Lycophron's Greek is peppered with words found nowhere else in surviving Greek literature. GREEK POETIC INFLUENCE. Alexandria produced three poets who influenced Latin literature: Callimachus, Apollonius of Rhodes, and Theocritus. Callimachus was librarian of the library of Alexandria and wrote a book catalog for it. He wrote a large number of poems, including

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including six surviving hymns in iambic, based on Hiponax of Colophon, mid-6th century BC. lived. He also wrote a poem entitled "Aitiai" (Origins), which lays out the origins of a number of local customs, and a short narrative poem entitled "Hekale", which modern scholars call an "Epyllion" or "little epic". ; the word does not appear in antiquity. Callimachus believed that the long narrative poem was dead. There was no longer any room in the Hellenistic world for lengthy epic poems. Apollonius was the second chief librarian of Alexandria, after Zenodotus, who was the first; If this information is correct, it must have increased his rivalry with Callimachus, who appears to have been passed over in favor of a man some five years his junior. Apollonius set out to prove Callimachu's censorship of epic poetry was wrong, and wrote a four-book epic, the Argonautica, about Jason and the Argonauts' quest for the Golden Fleece. Not entirely successful. Jason is anything but heroic. Medea, the princess of Colchis who helps Jason obtain the Golden Fleece, is the quintessential romantic heroine who rises to challenges that intimidate men. She would have many descendants in literature, including Dido in Virgil's Aeneid and Scarlett O'Hara in Margaret Mitchell's Gone with the Wind. Theocritus has two claims to fame as a poet. First, he revived pantomime as a poetic form. They were small dramatic dialogues about everyday topics. The genus originated in Syracuse, the hometown of Theocritus. Second, he was the inventor of pastoral poetry, which purports to be rural poetry: songs sung by shepherds as they tend their flocks. He wrote first in Syracuse, but received little support or patronage from the Syracusan tyrant Hiero II, and he moved to the island of Cos and then to Alexandria, which proved more profitable. His idylls were short pantomimes that gave a snapshot of contemporary life. Sometimes it is shepherds or shepherds talking or arguing - hence the name "pastoral" from the Latin word pastor, meaning "shepherd" - or a girl trying to use a love spell to remember her lover, or two housewives from Alexandria visiting the royal house. Palace opened to the public for the Feast of Adonis. Both in ancient times and today, it would have a multitude of imitators. GREEK LITERATURE UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Greek authors continued to write after the Roman Empire conquered the eastern Mediterranean, even though the Hellenistic kings who patronized them no longer existed. Historian and geographer Strabo, of Asian descent, born about 63 BC. C.E., wrote a work entitled Historical Sketches That Has Been Lost and Geography That Has Survived. Describe the known world of

on the west with Gaul and Great Britain, advancing from the east to the east and India, and ending with Africa. In historiography, the Hellenistic Age produced a first-rate historian, Polybius of Megalopolis, who died in 167 B.C. was brought to Rome as a hostage. He used the forced stay to study the language, customs and history of Rome. He wrote a universal history in forty books covering the period from 220 to 144 BC. The first five books are complete and deal with the Second Carthaginian War when Rome met a brilliant general, Hannibal. We have only fragments of the rest of Polybius' history. In the following century, around 30 B.C. another Greek, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, to Rome. C.E., taught rhetoric there for about 22 years and wrote a history of Rome called Roman Antiquities. Not surprisingly, his story is rhetorical and not very useful as a reliable source of Rome's past. In the reign of Emperor Augustus, another Greek, Diodorus Siculus, attempted a universal history beginning with the Trojan War and carrying his world history to 59 BC. The most famous writer in the modern world is Plutarch of Chaeronea who was born around AD 46. and that he lived to AD 120. He wrote a large body of essays collected under the general title Moralia, but his claim to fame runs parallel. Life that juxtaposed the biographies of famous Greeks with those of famous Romans. Plutarch has had many admirers in modern times. Among the writers who used it as raw material was William Shakespeare, who used it for Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, and Coriolanus. SOURCES

Luciano Canfora, The Vanished Library (London, England: Hutchinson Radius, 1989). Andrew Erskine, "Culture and Power in Hellenistic Egypt: The Museum and Library of Alexandria", Greece and Rome 42 (1995): 38–48. John Ferguson, Callimachus (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1980). CBR Pelling, Plutarch and History: Eighteen Studies (London, England: Duckworth, 2002). Thomas G. Rosenmeyer, The Green Cabinet; Theocritus and the European Pastoral Lyric (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969). Philip A. Stadter, Plutarch and the Historical Tradition (London, England; New York: Routledge, 1992).

BEGINNING OF THE ROMAN THEATER. The Roman historian Livy, who wrote about the years 364-363 BC. wrote that there was a plague

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In Rome. With neither human remedies nor prayers to the gods appeasing the plague, the Romans introduced musical shows in hopes of entertaining them. Etruscan dancers were brought in, dancing to the sound of a flutist. Rome already had a comic tradition; at the home harvest festival or at other occasions such as weddings, "women's songs" were sung: harsh diatribes sung in antiphons in improvised refutations. Sometimes they were composed in the native Latin meter known as "Saturnian"; Saturn's verse consisted of a group of seven syllables followed by a group of six syllables with a pause in between. No one considered crude jokes incompatible with solemn ceremonies; Even a victorious general celebrating a triumph could hear his soldiers singing Feszene verses as their procession made its way through the streets of Rome to the Temple of Jupiter. An example of their revered leader sung by Julius Caesar's soldiers as he marched through the streets translates to "Towners, arrest your wives / We bring the bald libertine". Livy records that young Romans, seeing the Etruscan dancers in the year of plague, began to imitate them, adding obscene and improvised retorts as fescene verses known as saturas or "medleys". There was plenty of lewd jokes and teasing, but no plot lines to speak of. Female verses were not the only influence, however. The Samnites in Campania between Rome and Naples, who spoke an Italic dialect called Oscan and are therefore often referred to as Osci, loved buffoons with common characters. When these were introduced to Rome they were called Atellanae after a town in Campania called Atella to which the Romans associated them. As with the Punch and Judy shows, characters were defined by lore. There was a clown named Maccus, a simple guy named Pappus, a fat boy named Bucco, and the hunchback Dossenus. With their antics and over-the-top masquerade, they enjoyed a mass appeal that Latin adaptations of Greek plays never had. GREEK INFLUENCE. With Livius Andronicus, whose translation of Homer's Odyssey into Latin marked the beginning of Latin literature, the actual enactment of dramatic enactments of the kind popular in Greece began in Rome. He began producing screenplays. He produced 240 BC. a work translated from Greek entitled Ludi Romani at the Roman harvest festival. This was a milestone in Roman theater as it appears to be the first time a play has been staged in Rome. He wrote more tragedy than comedy, and while not a major literary figure, he was a pioneer as Rome's first dramatist. Naevius, who came after him, was more comfortable with comedy than tragedy, not that he wrote 158 originals.

plays as all his comedies are from the New Greek Comedy. He invented a new variety not borrowed from Greece: the historical drama, or in Latin the fabula praetexta. The name comes from the purple-edged toga, called the toga praetexta, worn by Roman judges because the dramas dealt with characters from the Roman past. According to Naevius, historical drama had only very modest success. Some works dealt with the early history of Rome - Ennius wrote a Rapture of the Sabines - and others with the victories of surviving or recently deceased generals. Ennius had a nephew, Pacuvius, born 220 BC. C., who came to Rome as a young man and distinguished himself as a poet and painter. Her forte was Greek-themed tragedy: Fabulae Cothurnatae, so named for the particular high boots called cothurni worn by tragic actors. We know the titles of thirty tragedies he wrote, but none have survived. The same fate awaited the works of a more important tragedian, Accius, who died in 130 BC. Chr. Pacuvius replaced. when each of them was producing a drama: Pacuvio was eighty and at the end of his career, and Accio, thirty, was making his debut. With Accius, the popularity of the fabula cothurnata reached its peak, and in later years the Romans looked to the second half of the 2nd century B.C. like the golden age of tragedy. However, only fragments of the works have survived. ROMAN COMEDY. The Roman comedy fared better. We have 27 comedies, more or less complete, all adaptations of Greek New Comedy. They are fabulae palliatae, that is, dramas with Greek characters dressed in a kind of Greek cloak (pallium) much appreciated by Greek philosophers. Twenty-one of these comedies are from "Titus Maccius Plautus", about which there is little reliable information. He supposedly came to Rome from Umbria, where he was born, worked for some time in the theater, tried his luck in commerce, lost his money and had to work in a factory where he used his free time to write plays. He died in 184 BC. The remaining eight are by Publius Terentius Afer, who was born in Carthage and was brought to Rome as a boy-slave by a senator who was so in love with the boy that he gave him a good education and set him free. Before the age of 25 he produced six plays. Then he left Rome for Greece, never to return. There are different accounts of his death, but they agree that he had in his luggage a large number of new works - translations from the Greek - which were lost with him. PLAUTUS. It is impossible to judge to what extent Plautus adapted his Greek originals to Roman tastes, but his works appear to have Greek settings such as Athens or

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epidamus Though it could be any city, much of the slapstick must have come from Atellanae, the popular Atellan farces. Plautus used standard New Comedy characters but put his own stamp on them. His courtesans are not always sweet and seductive; In Truculentus, a ruthless courtesan ruins her lovers. A popular character type that Plautus brilliantly developed was the clever slave. He also reintroduced the song to the sitcom. There were songs on Old Comedy, but they fell by the wayside. Plautus found that Roman audiences enjoyed musical comedy and added more and more songs over time. The Bragging Soldier, one of the first plays, has no songs; the later Menaechmus brothers have five. Its dialogue is piquant but not sordid, for the Romans were still Puritans, and as the plots of Plautus' comedies unfolded on stage many Romans must have reflected that such things happened in Greece but never in Rome , and in this sense have found satisfaction of morality. Superiority. THE SOLDIER BRAGGART. The title's "daring soldier" is a standard character, the mercenary, who is totally bombastic and over the top. In this case, the title of soldier bears the appetizing name of Pyrgopolynices. A young Athenian, Pleusicles, is madly in love with a courtesan from Philocomasium, but while away from Athens on business, the soldier kidnaps her and takes her to Ephesus. Pleusicles' cunning slave, Palaestrio, decides to tell his master what happened, but is captured by pirates. By chance, they introduce him to Pyrgopolynices. Palaestrio receives a letter for Pleusicles summoning him to Ephesus. Pleusicles arrives and stays at his father's friend's house, who lives next door to the soldier. The cunning slave Palaestrio orchestrates an elaborate farce to trick the soldiers into believing that a rich old man's wife has fallen head over heels in love with him. The woman is actually a courtesan playing the role assigned to her by Palestrio, and the old man is a friend of Pleusicles' father. The soldier gives up the Philokomasium for his new love without any problems, but is caught in the act of attempting adultery, severely beaten and threatened with castration. The old man gives in when Pyrgopolynices swears he will never take revenge for the beatings he received. THE MENACHUS BROTHERS. The Menaechmus Brothers is a comedy of mistaken identities; It was adapted and elaborated by Shakespeare in his Comedy of Errors. Identical twins were born to a Sicilian merchant from Syracuse. A twin, Menaechmus, was kidnapped and his father died of grief. Then the grandfather of the remaining twin renamed him Menaechmus to commemorate his lost brother. So we have Menaech-

Mus I and Menaechmus II, identical brothers. Menaechmus I, the kidnapped boy, was brought to Epidamnus by his captor, who turned out to be childless, so he adopted Menaechmus I and made him heir to his vast fortune. At the beginning of the play, Menaechmus II has come to Epidamnus in search of his twin; This is the sixth year he's been searching. Menaechmus I is having an affair with a courtesan, Erotium. Erotium confuses Menaechmus II with Menaechmus I, and Menaechmus II agrees with the error; Lunch with Erotium and enjoy his favors. The deception causes all sorts of confusion, and when Menaechmus I returns to the scene, he finds himself faced with a jealous wife, an angry lover, and a father-in-law who thinks he is insane. Through the intervention of Menaechmus II's slave, he escapes being dragged to a doctor, a fate worse than death. Eventually, the two Menaechmuses meet and put things right again. The drama comes with a multitude of common characters: a parasite, a seductive courtesan and a goofy doctor. It is Plautu's only comedy of errors, and when Shakespeare adapted it he duplicated false identities by having not one set of identical twins, but two. terence All six plays Terence wrote have survived, which is a remarkable tribute to her perseverance in the Middle Ages. His comedies lacked the popularity that Plautus' plays had because they lacked his "comic power", as one early critic put it. They were, however, polished and well-constructed dramas, written in a kind of Latin that could be used as a model for schoolchildren. His first work, The Wife of Andros (Andria), was written in 166 BC. B.C., is based on two works by Menander and uses common characters with originality: the typical young man is in love, but he wants to marry a young woman from a good family. . , not a courtesan. The strict parents are presented in a sympathetic way and the cunning slave is more than just a scammer. The plot is as follows: Simo married his son Pánfilo to Filumena, the daughter of Cremes. But Pamphilus loves Glycerium, an orphan, while his friend Charinus wants to marry Philumena. The two parents negotiate; The cunning slave Davus orchestrates the action and everything is resolved when Glycerium is the daughter of Cremes and also had a son by Pamfilo. Pánfilo marries Glicerio and Carino marries Filumena. A year after The Woman from Andros, Terence produced Her Mother-in-law, but his first production failed. Then came the Punisher and the eunuch and in the same year as the eunuch Phormio. His last work was Adelphi (The Brothers), which many critics consider his best. There are two sets in this game.

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A group of siblings are old men with contrasting characters: Micius, who lives in Athens and is quiet, and Demea, a frugal farmer from the outskirts of Athens. Micio is childless and adopts one of Demea's two children. So we have a second pair of siblings: one virtuous from her father and the other indulgent from her adoptive father who is also her uncle. The plot revolves around Micio's adopted son's attempt to kidnap a girl who is playing the harp for her virtuous brother. The conspiracy is unraveled when Demea adopts a softer attitude, the son stays with the harpist, and marries Micio's adopted son. THEATER AFTER TERÊNCO. Survival accidents make it seem like the dramatic genius behind Terence has dried up. In fact, the theater remained popular. While Terence wrote comedies that were purely Greek in everything but the language, other playwrights brought Roman characters to the stage. These were called fabulae togatae, i. H. Dramas in togas, as opposed to the fabulae palliatae, where characters were dressed in Greek fashion. His success was modest. Crowds were most drawn to Atellan's pantomime and farce. SOURCES

W. Geoffrey Arnott, Menander, Plautus and Terence, (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1975). W. Beare, The Roman Stage. Brief History of the Latin Theater in the Times of the Republic. 3rd ed. (London, England: Methuen, 1964). George E. Duckworth, The Nature of Roman Comedy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1952). Bruno Gentili, Theatrical Performances in Antiquity: Hellenistic and Ancient Roman Theater (Amsterdam: JC Gieben, 1979). David Konstan, Roman Comedy (Ithaca, NY; London, England: Cornell University Press, 1983). Plautus, Four Comedies: The Praggart Soldier, The Menecmus Brothers, The Haunted House, The Pot of Gold. Trans. Erich Segal (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1996).

Latin Poetry Before the Age of Augustus

EPIC LATIN POETRY. The Latin epic begins in 240 with Livius Andronicus, a Greek from Tarentum, now Taranto on the south coast of Italy, which had been founded as a Greek colony of Tara and fell to the Romans after Rome's war with Pyrrhos. . Andronicus was brought to Rome as a slave and bought

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by a member of one of Rome's great Roman families, the Livians, who set him free because he had brought up his owner's children very well. He continued to teach after his release and wanted to develop a teaching model similar to that of the Greeks. Greek children learned from the Greek epic poet Homer, but Rome had nothing like it, so Andronicus translated one of Homer's most famous works, the Odyssey, into Latin, using Rome's only native rhythm, Saturn's verses. He became a professional poet and playwright and wrote a hymn to the gods to win their favor during Rome's war with Hannibal. In recognition of his craft, Rome allowed him to found a guild of writers and actors based in the Temple of Minerva on Aventime Hill. However, he remained best known for his translation of the Odyssey, published in the mid-1st century BC. was still an integral part of Roman education when the poet Augustus Horace was a boy. NAEVIUS AND ENNIUS. Gnaeus Naevius took the next step in the development of the Latin epic. He fought in Rome's first war against Carthage, which ended in 241 BC. ended. E.C., and wrote a story about her in poetic form. Like Andronicus, he used the Saturn track. His work is lost, but we do know that he traced the enmity between Rome and Carthage to its roots and produced the story of Dido and Aeneas, as Virgil would later do in his epic Aeneid. With Quintus Ennius (239-169 BC), the Latin epic took a giant step forward. He came from a town in Calabria, spoke Oscan, the language of the Samnites, as well as Latin and Greek, and adapted Greek dramas for the Roman stage. His great work was his Annales, a poem about the history of Rome from its beginnings. Unlike Nevio, he adapted Homer's meter, the dactylic hexameter, to his verse. This was an important step, as all subsequent Latin epic writers followed his example and used hexameter verse. TITO LUCRECIO CARO. Lucretius (94-55 BC) stands out as one of the greatest didactic poets (from Greek didaskein, "to teach"), writing in every language. Early pre-Socratic Greek philosophers (before Socrates) wrote in poetry, but poetry gave way to prose as the medium for philosophy even before Plato popularized the dialogue form. Didactic poetry revived in Alexandria, but none of the poets working in the cultural hothouse surrounding the Library of Alexandria ever reached the height of Lucretius. He converted to Epicureanism, which taught that all things are made of atoms and voids and that when people die their atoms dissolve and there is no life after death. Epicureanism did not deny the existence of the gods, but

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LUCRETIUS AND THE ATOMIC THEORY INTRODUCTION:

Lucretius (c. 94–55 BC), a Roman poet, attempted to explain the atomic theory of the universe set forth by the Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus in their great poem De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things). . The theory argued that since all matter is made up of atoms and a vacuum, death is simply a dissolution of atoms and should not be feared by anyone. In the next section he begins his explanation of creation with the principle that nothing can be created from nothing. The prose translation gives little indication of Lucretius' poetic genius, but it is a clear exposition of his ideas.

This fear and darkness of mind cannot be dissipated by the rays of the sun, the bright rays of the day, but only by an understanding of the outer form and inner workings of nature. As we approach this subject, we will start from this principle: Divine power can never create something out of nothing. The reason all mortals are so scared is because they see all kinds of

banished them to a region far removed from life on earth. The advantage of Epicureanism was that it removed all fear of death, Lucretius believed. Lucretius deserves an honorable mention among philosophers, but he must also be recognized as a great poet because he wrote with enthusiasm and skill and great passion for his subject. It describes matter and the vacuum and the forms and movements of the atoms in the vacuum, it explains how life and sensations arose and plants and animals arose more or less by accident and then reproduced and what the gods were, for they too were atoms and emptiness, and it ends with the haunting description of a sudden outbreak of the plague; clearly the poem is unfinished and must have been published after the death of Lucretius. Pochard. Thanks to the fortunate discovery of a manuscript in the early fourteenth century, we have 116 poems by Gaius Valerius Catullus of varying lengths, revealing a poet of genius. He belonged to a new wave of poets in the first half of the first century BC. who sought inspiration from the writers of Alexandria. They followed in the footsteps of an unconventional poet named Laevius, who lived in the 1990s BC. C., wrote love poetry expressing personal feelings. The orator Cicero, who despised them, called them neoterói (the new writers or "the new wave"), and the name stuck; modern critics call them "neotericism". Catullus is the only one whose work has survived. His poems express his passion.

Things that happen on earth and in heaven for no apparent reason and are due to the will of a god. So when we have seen that nothing can be created from nothing, we will have a clearer picture of the way forward, the problem of how things are created and produced without the help of the gods. First, if things were made from nothing, any species could sprout from any source and nothing would need seeds. Men could arise from the sea, and fish with scales from the earth, and birds could be born from the sky. Cattle and other domestic animals and all kinds of wild animals that reproduce indiscriminately would occupy cultivated and desolate lands. The same fruits would not always grow on the same trees, but would change constantly: any tree could bear any fruit. If each species does not consist of its own procreative bodies, why should each always give birth to the same mother species? SOURCE:

Lucretius, "Matter and Space", in On the Nature of the Universe. Trans. RE Latham (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1951): 31-32.

the passionate love for a woman he named Lesbia and the emotional roller coaster ride he went through when his love went sour. Without her pseudonym, Lesbia was actually Clodia, a brilliant woman, the sister of a political agitator in Rome, Publius Clodius, and Catullus could only have been a minor figure in the group of influential rulers she rallied around her. But Catullus wrote more than just love poetry. Borrowing from Callimachus and the Alexandrians, he experimented with an epyllion, or short epic, and translated one of Callimachus' most famous poems, Berenice's Bolt. Sappho also influenced him; he translated a poem of his based on the Sapphic stanza. But it's his lyrics, expressing his ill-fated love for Lesbia, that have made him famous. SOURCES

Cyril Bailey, "Lucretius", Proceedings of the British Academy 33 (1949): 143-160. WR Johnson, Lucretius and the Modern World (London, England: Duckworth, 2000). Duncan F. Kennedy, Rethinking Reality: Lucretius and the Textualization of Nature (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002). Kenneth Quinn, Catullus: An Interpretation (London, England: Batsford, 1972). TP Wiseman, Catullus and His World: A Reappraisal (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).

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Latin prose writers before the age of the Augustians

WRITER BEFORE CICERON. Roman historical traditions shaped the Roman people; From earliest times, the Pontifex Maximus (high priest) of Rome kept a whitewashed slate register of magistrates for each year and notable event. The first true historian of Rome, Fabius Pictor, wrote in Greek rather than Latin. Written during the desperate war with Hannibal the Carthaginian, his story was intended to foster pro-Roman sympathies in Greece. Marcius Porcius Cato (234–149 BC) was the first author and statesman to use Latin in his writings. He was a major orator and in old age wrote a story entitled Origines about the origins not only of Rome but also of neighboring peoples. Of his writings only a treatise on agriculture survives, giving the impression that he was an inveterate but devout farmer. After him there were up to Cicero and Julius Caesar in the middle decades of the first century BC. CE no notable prose writer. MARCO TULIO CÍCERO. The facts of Cicero's life can be briefly given. He was born in 106 BC. born. in the small town of Arpinum (modern Arpino). At the age of 16, he teamed up with a then-well-known lawyer, Quintus Mucius Scaevola, to forge a path in the Roman legal industry. At the age of 18 he started his military service. He served under Pompey, the father of Julius Caesar's rival, who he always thought gave him a special bond with Pompey. In the years that followed he studied rhetoric and philosophy in Rome, making his debut in 81 BC. at court. This was the time of Sulla's dictatorship, and Cicero became a marked man, successfully defending a man who had attracted the enmity of one of Sulla's henchmen, Chrysogonus. Cicero thought it prudent to retire to Greece for further studies after this affair, and only returned after Sulla's death in 78 BC. BC Returned to Rome. His first great court triumph was in 70 BC. when he accused Gaius Verres of his corrupt government of Sicily. Verres voluntarily went into exile before being sentenced and no compensation was paid to the Sicilian provincials who were his victims. To win the case, Cicero beat the best lawyer of the day, Hortensius, and his reputation was well earned. He rose 63 B.C. to the consulship. despite the fact that he was a "new man" - that is, none of his family had been consul before - and during his year in office suppressed the conspiracy of Catiline and executed the conspirators without trial, which was illegal. For this reason he was banished in 58 a. EG and was only allowed to return after making it clear he would make no fuss at 162

the political triumvirate of Pompey, Crassus and Julius Caesar who were manipulating politics behind the scenes at the time. When Caesar 49 B.C. the Civil War began. Cicero crossed the Rubicon River, which marked the border between his province of Cisalpine Gaul and Italy, and after some hesitation, joined the senatorial group led by Pompey, who were enemies of Caesar. After the defeat of Pompey's army at the Battle of Pharsalus the following year, Cicero returned to Italy. He was not one of the conspirators who defeated Caesar on the Ides of March (March 15) 44 BC. murdered. C., but there is no doubt that he agreed and shortly thereafter tried to get the Senate to quash the attempt to take over Marco Antonio. He mistakenly thought he could use Julius Caesar's great-nephew Octavian, whom Caesar had adopted in his will, against Mark Antony and then discard him when no longer needed. Events turned out to be different; Octavian joined Antony and another of Caesar's officers, Lepidus, in a second triumvirate of power brokers, and when that second triumvirate came in November 43 B.C. When B.C. drew up his list of enemies to be banished, Antony insisted that he be included. He was murdered by Antony's troops and his head nailed to the tribune, or rostrum, in the Roman Forum where Cicero used to speak. CICERON'S LETTERS. The sheer number of Cicero's works is impressive. He bequeathed to posterity private letters, public speeches - sometimes in court, sometimes in the Senate or before a public meeting - treatises on rhetoric and dialogues on philosophy that were enormously influential, though by no means an original philosopher. His letters were written to his friends and family, including his younger brother Quintus and his close friend and confidante Titus Pomponius Atticus, a wealthy businessman and financier who stayed out of politics and survived the civil wars. The letters reveal the private Cicero distinct from his public persona. Lawyers at this time in ancient Rome did not charge their clients because of the claim that lawyers were above such considerations. They expected gifts and bequests from their clients, however, and Cicero's income was such that he was able to maintain large numbers of villas in the country, although for men of his class his lifestyle was not particularly extravagant by society's standards. Cicero's letters offer a rare glimpse into the private life of a Roman statesman as the Roman Republic descended into civil war. CICERO'S SPEECH. Of Cicero's speeches delivered in the Roman Senate or in public forums, the most famous are his four speeches against Catiline and his Philippices,

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Speeches against Mark Antony, the first of which was on September 2, 44 B.C. was held in the Senate. and the second, more famous, was even published in the form of a pamphlet, although it was a speech. The Catiline prayers were written in the year of Cicero's consulship in 63 BC. Pronounced. The seriousness of the threat Catiline posed to constitutional government is a matter of debate; no doubt Cicero exaggerated. Cicero's speeches in the courtroom cast a threatening light on public life in Rome. His Verrine prayers against the corrupt governor of Sicily, Verres, who ruled in 70 BC. was put on trial. C., were released after the fall; In fact, they were not handed over to the court, since Verres first went into exile voluntarily. Another great speech on behalf of the leader of a gang of bandits, Milo, in 52 BC. it was not delivered to court either. Cicero lost the case but made amends by publishing the version he would have given, but didn't because he was fascinated by Pompey's soldiers convening the court. Other orations offer magnificent vignettes of Roman life. One of them, "In Defense of Cluentius", is about a murder in an Italian town. Another, "In Defense of Caelius," throws a side light on Catullus's love affair with Lesbia, as Caelius was a former lover of Clodia, who seems to have been Catullus' Lesbia in real life. Caelius was having an affair with Clodia, and when he left her, she accused him of trying to poison her. Cicero's defense of Caelius gives him an opportunity to delve into Rome's underworld and Clodia's personal life in particular. Treatises on rhetoric and philosophy. Cicero was an eclectic philosopher who wrote philosophical dialogues at a time in his life when the alliance of powerful Caesar, Pompey and Crassus known as the First Triumvirate isolated him from politics. Of his works on rhetoric, his Brutus is interesting for its discussion of the development of rhetoric in Greece and Rome, leading to a description of their own development. Cicero followed with his Orator, arguing that the true orator must be a master of all styles: the simple, the somewhat flowery, and the grandiose. Cicero is an important source of modern oratorio knowledge in the Roman Republic. OTHER NOTABLE WRITERS IN PROSE. Gaius Julius Caesar is best known as a conqueror of the world, but he was also an author. In the latter field he became famous for his commentaries on the Gallic Wars and the Civil War. His Latin style is unlike that of any other writer save for his imitators. He wrote a "commentary", not a "history" of his conquest of Gaul and the civil war that followed; a "commentary" was intended to be a first draft, later to be embellished with literary embellishments. falls

Cicero, portrait in profile, engraving.

PUBLIC DOMAIN.

Sar wrote for propaganda purposes, but he reads like a good war correspondent. Your bias is obvious, but not that obvious. One of his officers, Aulus Hirtius, added an eighth book to the Gallic Wars and continued Caesar's Civil War with a work in a style emulating Caesar's The Alexandrian War. It is the source of the romance between the young Cleopatra of Egypt and Julius Caesar. Another defender of Caesar with a more eloquent style was Sallust (Gaius Sallustius Crispus), who wrote a Historia, now lost, monographs on the conspiracy of Catiline in 63 BC. and the war with Jugurtha in North Africa in the late 2nd century B.C. conquered by Mario, Caesar's uncle by marriage. In the second of these, Marius does very well. In his monograph on the Conspiracy of Catiline, Cicero's role pales in comparison to that of Julius Caesar and Cato the Younger. Cicero is portrayed as a decent but mild politician, but Cato represents the stern justice of a far-right statesman, while Caesar has the makings of a benevolent ruler. Finally, there was a prolific writer, Marcus Terentius Varro, of whose many works only one survives in its entirety: a dialogue on buying and running a farm. Another notable writer is Cornelius Nepos, whose book on outstanding foreign leaders

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Cities, 22 of them, all Greek except two Carthaginians and one Persian, is written in simple but rather dull Latin prose. SOURCES

Samuel W. Crompton, Julius Caesar (Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2003). Anthony Everitt, Cicero: Ein turbulentes Leben (London, England: John Murray, 2001). Elizabeth Rawson, Cicero: Ein Porträt. Ed. Pfr. (Ithaca: N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983). David Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (London, England: Oxford University Press, 1971). Sir Ronald Syme, Sallust (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002). Kathryn Welch und Anton Powell, Hrsg., Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: The War Commentaries as Political Instruments (London, England: Duckworth, 1998).

THE GOLDEN AGE OF LATIN LITERATURE IN THE NEW AUGUST OPENING CLIMATE. The civil war that began when Julius Caesar 49 BC Crossed the Rubicon. and ended when Caesar's heir Octavian 31 BC. Defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium. C. - ended the era of late Republican literature and began the Age of Augustus. The poet Horace fought as a staff officer (tribune) in the army of Brutus and Cassius, but was not a staunch supporter of the Roman Republic. After the defeat of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in 42 B.C. he returned to Italy. C. and made peace with the new regime. The poet Tibulo personally disliked war, as he tells us in two poems celebrating the victories of his patron Messala, and Propertius preferred to write about the love of his life, whom he called Cynthia - her real name was Hostia and she was a beautiful courtesan, but because she belonged to the circle of writers supported by Augustus' unofficial minister of propaganda, Maecenas, she was asked to commend Augustus' exploits and apologize as kindly as possible. Virgil, the greatest of the exalted writers, had no nostalgia for the ancient Roman Republic, having seen firsthand how badly it governed the provinces, being born in one. Born a year after the assassination of Julius Caesar, Ovid was unaware of the republic's days off when writers could write whatever they wanted, but he did learn that under the principality, as the regime of Augustus was called, an author was alone failed . . . Risk. respect certain limits of their freedom. When Ovid was about fifty years old, Augustus exiled 164

it to Tomis on the Black Sea in what is now Romania. Augustus's successor, Tiberius, did not remember and died there. The reasons for his exile are unclear, but one may have been a playful poem he wrote entitled The Art of Love, a poetic and witty guide to seducing women. THE ECOLOGIES OF VIRGIL. A group of smaller poems survive which are considered Virgil's early works, and one of these, the Culex (El Mosquito), is a worthy epileum for Virgil. The poem describes how a mosquito wakes a shepherd from a nap, whom he kills only to find that a venomous snake is about to attack him; the mosquito had sacrificed its life to warn him in time. Some scholars accept Culex as a Virgilian, but the earliest works undoubtedly written by him are his Bucolicos (Country Poems), also known as his Eclogues (Selected Poems). There are ten, and two, the first and ninth, have been considered autobiographical as they deal with land confiscations after the Battle of Philippi when Octavian expropriated lands in the Cremona and Mantua regions to settle soldiers. . . Virgil's family estate was expropriated, and the first eclogue tells how a freedman, Tityrus, gave back his small farm to him. There are problems with this interpretation, and it is more likely that Virgil's intention in both the first and ninth eclogues was to publicize the disturbances and injustices caused by land confiscations. The fourth poem, called the "Messianic" Eclogue, welcomes the expected birth of a child that will mark the beginning of a new era. The identity of this child has been hotly disputed, and later Christian commentators have interpreted the poem as a prophecy of Christ's birth. It may be a child Octavian is expecting; as the fourth Eclogue 40 BC. He was still married to his second wife Scribonia, by whom he had his only child, a daughter Julia. But if so, the child whose birth Virgil predicted was never born. In the Eclogues the influence of Theocritus is clear, but it was Virgil who invented Arcadia, not Arcadia in central Greece but an imaginary Arcadia where shepherds and cowherds sang and loved and lived away from the bustle of the city. In the literary tradition of Europe, it was Virgil, not Theocritus, who invented pastoral poetry. THE GEORGIAN. The Georgik (On the Cultivation of the Land) is a didactic poem written at the behest of Maecenas, who gathered a group of writers around him and attempted to use their talents for the benefit of Octavius. The restoration of agriculture in Italy after the Civil War was a vital concern, and while the Georgics is the most elaborate verse Virgil ever produced, it is propaganda. He also brought didactic poetry to a new level. The theme of

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The first book is The Grape Harvest and the Signs of Good and Bad Weather. The second speaks of vineyards and olive groves, the third of cattle, the last of beekeeping. Virgil worked on the poem for seven years and somehow manages to make the simple passages about ploughing, planting and beekeeping interesting. THE NATIONAL EPIC OF ROME. Augustus wanted a heroic poem, an epic that could be compared without regret to the Greek poet Homer, whose Iliad and Odyssey overshadowed the works of the Roman poets. Of the leading Roman poets of the time, only Virgil answered the call and produced the Aeneid. It has rightly been admired from its time to the present day. Even as it was being written, the poet Propertius wrote that "something greater than the Iliad is being done," praise even before the publication date. It soon became Rome's national epic, the Latin answer to Homer. It tells the story of the Trojan hero Aeneas, who escaped the sack of Troy and came to Italy, bringing with him the gods of his homeland and conquering a space in Lazio for himself and his descendants. The Romans were familiar with the myth. Aeneas' son, Ascanio, founded Alba Longa, whose royal houses produced Romulus, the founder of Rome. Ancient Roman families called themselves "born in Troy," which was tantamount to claiming ancestors who arrived on the Mayflower. Julius Caesar's family, the Iulii, made the claim, and Emperor Augustus was Caesar's great-nephew and adopted son. Julian tradition tells that Aeneas had a son, Iulus, who was the first ancestor of the family. Virgil identifies Iulus with Ascanius and explains that Iulus was Ascanius' other name. Thus Augustus was a descendant of Aeneas, and the story of Aeneas cast a semblance of legitimacy on the emperor and his dynasty. Aeneas' struggle to establish his Trojans in Latium paralleled Augustus' struggle to bring peace and prosperity to the empire after the generation of civil war had destroyed the ancient Roman republic. THE ENVY. For the first half of the Aeneid Virgil took Homer's Odyssey as a model and the Iliad for the second half and deliberately invited comparisons. For example, the character Aeneas is a warrior of the Trojan War who must face a long and arduous journey after the war is over, as well as the character Odysseus from The Odyssey. However, unlike Odysseus, Aeneas actually flees home after fighting alongside the Trojans. With a ship full of survivors, including his son and father, he flees Troy for Italy, where he is destined to found Rome. However, the reality of his fate does not buy him an easy passage; a storm throws Aeneas' small fleet ashore

mosaic c. 3rd century AD, "Virgil writes the Aeneid, inspired by two Muses", in the Museum of the Bard, Tunis, Tunisia. Clio, the muse of tale, holds a manuscript, on Virgil's left, and Melpomene, the muse of tragedy, wearing a mask, on his right. © ROGER WOOD/CORBIS.

of Carthage, which was just founded by Queen Dido. Dido welcomes Aeneas and his Trojans, giving them a royal feast equivalent to the landing of Odysseus on the Feki coast and his salutation by the Feki king and queen. As with the banquet scene in The Odyssey, Virgil related what happened before the Trojans landed in Carthage as a "flashback" sequence in which Aeneas tells the Carthaginians about the fall of Troy, including the famous story of how the Greeks finally managed to escape. the city walls. The Greeks built a large wooden horse, left it at the city gates and wanted to return home. A Greek pretending to be a runaway slave told the Trojans that the horse was a gift from the gods and that if they took it within the city walls their city would never be taken. Deceived by its story, the Trojans brought the horse back to their city, unaware that inside its hollow belly was a group of Greek soldiers, waiting for nightfall to open the gates to the Greek forces outside. That night, Greek troops came out of hiding and sacked the city. This story is so famous that the "Trojan Horse" has become an enduring symbol of deceit and duplicity. The Trojans fought with the courage of desperation, but when resistance proved futile, Aeneas obeyed the gods' command to retreat. The story of how he carried his crippled father Anchises on his shoulders and escaped Troy was already famous in Rome.

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VERGIL'S ROME MISSION PROCLAMATION INTRODUCTION:

Literature in ancient Rome once served the purpose of the state as propaganda. In the year 30 a. C., the Roman poet Virgil began his epic work The Aeneid in response to Emperor Augustus' demand for a poem glorifying his regime that could be unashamedly compared to the works of the Greek poet Homer: the Iliad and the Odyssey. Using these texts as models, Virgil told the story of the founding of Rome, using the Trojan hero Aeneas as its legendary founder. Although at the time of Virgil's death in 19 B.C. BC was not yet completed. C., the work became Rome's national epic, glorifying the establishment of the Roman Empire with "the blood, sweat, and tears" of Rome's ancestors. In Book 6 of the Aeneid, Virgil tells the story of Aeneas' descent into the underworld, where he encounters the spirit of his father Anchises, who shows him the souls of the unborn Romans. At the close of this spectacle of Roman history, Anchises proclaims the unique mission of the Roman Empire in the following lines.

Others, I don't doubt, will hit bronze in numbers that breathe softer. Others draw vivid images from the marble. Others continue to argue or describe the paths of the stars in the sky with their staff and predict their departure. Your task, Roman, and don't forget it, will be to rule the peoples of the world with your empire. These will be your arts: imposing a firm standard of peace, forgiving the vanquished, and defeating the arrogant. SOURCE: Virgil, The Aeneid. Book 6. Trans. David West (London: Penguin Classics, 1990): 159.

Aeneas escaped safely with his father, son Ascanius and the gods of his homeland, but his wife Creusa was lost. Aeneas returned to Troy to look for her, but her spirit told him to move on: a new home awaited him in Italy. Like Odysseus, Aeneas suffered hardships and casualties during his sea voyage; He lost his father in Sicily and a storm washed them off the coast of Carthage in Africa. Like Odysseus and the Phaeacians, Dido and her people are moved by the sad tale of Aeneas and the Trojans, and the two peoples seem ready to join forces. Dido and Aeneas begin an affair, but the gods see the romance as a threat to Aeneas' fate and order him to leave Carthage for Italy. the plot unfolds166

The plot closely resembles the gods' command to the nymph Calypso to release her lover Odysseus so that he can return home. None of these powerful female figures wanted to let their loved ones go, and Dido stages a dramatic suicide at Aeneas' departure, building a pyre for herself from Aeneas' discarded possessions and committing suicide at their bonfires. Dido's death testifies to the Roman belief that romantic love was a poison that destroyed engagements and family bonds; In Rome, marriage was a deal negotiated by the parents of the bride and groom, and among well-to-do Romans it was about property. Love led to irrational behavior and inappropriate marriages. Aeneas' rejection of his beloved is also evidence that the Romans emphasized duty towards emotional attachments; Aeneas is devoted to duty: Virgil's usual epithet for him is pius, which means more than its English derivative 'pious'. It means godly, obedient and even compassionate. DESTINATION IN ITALY. Although Aeneas does not lose as many traveling companions as Odysseus, he is forced to abandon the women of his group in Sicily after the travel-weary women set the ships on fire to prevent them from leaving the island. So the Trojan colonists in Italy will only be men, which means they will have to find Italian women for their mates. Aeneas is aware that his settlement in Italy will require another war similar to the Trojan War, but he sees it as his destiny to be on the winning side this time as he visits the underworld and sees the spirits of Rome's future builders . The last six books describe the struggle in Italy between native Rutulians and immigrant Trojans, and Virgil shifts his narrative model to the Iliad. Aeneas arrives at the future location of Rome and there meets King Latinus, who has been instructed by an oracle to marry his daughter Lavinia to someone not from the country. Although the king is willing to marry Lavinia to Aeneas, Queen Amata is not; she favors the Rutulian prince Turnus, and the rivalry between Turnus and Aeneas triggers a war between the two peoples. After much bloodshed, the war is decided by a melee between the two suitors, in which Aeneas kills Turnus. EVALUATION OF A GREAT POEM. Virgil's Aeneid became the national epic of the Roman Empire. The poet used several literary influences for his creation, mainly Homer. Virgil was also based on the Argonautica by the Hellenistic poet Apollonius of Rhodes. Virgil's Dido owes Apollonius' Medea. Virgil was familiar with Alexandrian poetry; his Eclogues are inspired by Theocritus and the Aeneid is also inspired by Alexandria herself

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although his model was Homer. Finally, there was Ennius, the first Roman epic poet to use dactylic hexameters, from whom Virgil borrowed much for his knowledge of early Italy. The Aeneid certainly celebrates the Roman Empire, Augustus' contribution to it, and the courage and selfless work of Rome's founders. However, he also sympathizes with people oppressed by Rome's rise to power. Both Turnus and Dido draw our sympathy, while Aeneas can be remarkably brutal and his epithet pius (obedient) is a little off-putting. In the end it becomes clear that the Trojans are assimilated. Aeneas has brought his gods from Troy and plans to make them the gods of Rome, but the god Jupiter makes it clear that he will decide which gods the Romans will worship. Aeneas, an Asian immigrant, will begin the historical process leading to the Roman Empire, but he will lose his native culture and his descendants will be purely Italian.

trouble because Maecenas had given him a farm in the country of the Sabines, not far from Rome. Horace advised his manager to be content with what he had. Emperor Augustus, who loved Horace and wrote to him frequently, urged him to write more in praise of the imperial house, and in response he added a fourth book to his odes and also produced a lengthy hymn for the secular games from 17 to . The games were not 'secular' in the modern sense, as the word comes from the Latin saeculum, meaning 'century', so 'centenaries' would be a better description of this year's celebrations. The hymn is called Carmen Saeculare and is not Horace at his best. Horace wrote another long poem that is famous: the third book of his Epistles, devoted exclusively to his Ars Poetica (The Art of Poetry). It is a good example of didactic poetry, but its content is not original since Horace followed a treatise written by a Hellenistic author, Neoptolemus of Parion.

Horatio. Quintus Horatius Flaccus was the son of a former slave who ensured that his son received a good education in Rome and was later able to send him to Athens. These were the heady days following the assassination of Julius Caesar, and Horace, swept up in the enthusiasm of the Romans studying in Athens for the republican cause, joined the army formed by Marcus Brutus, Julius Caesar's assassin became. The defeats of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi understandably dampened his enthusiasm, so he returned to Italy, secured a low-paying administrative post in the government, and began to write. Some of his epods date from this period. They take their name from the meter invented by the Greek lyric poet Archilochus, as almost all have a long verse followed by a shorter one, the technical name of which was Epoid (later song). Some time before the Battle of Actium he was introduced to Octavian's minister charged with shaping public opinion, Maecenas, and his days of poverty were at an end. It was Maecenas who suggested putting together a collection of his epods. Around 35 BC from the EC he produced a collection of satires, or what he called sermons, which can be accurately translated as "babble". He also experimented with something new: an attempt to use the meter of the lesbian poets Alcaeus and Sappho. Although the poet Catullus had experimented with the Sapphic stanza, Horace could claim that it was original because the theme was his. The first three books of his Odes - or, as he called them, his Carmines (songs) - lasted seven years and were written around 23 BC. published. This was followed by his epistles, so called because they are intended as verse letters to different addressees. One thing he said to his peasant:

PROPERCIUS, TIBULLUS AND SULPICE. Propertius, Tibullus, and Sulpicia wrote love poems to specific individuals whom they claim as objects of their devotion. Propertius addressed his poems to Cynthia and Tibullus to Delia. Sulpicia was a woman and the lover she is addressing is a man, but she follows the conventions of that genre of poetry. Propertius belonged to the circle of Maecenas, but Tibullus had another patron, Messala. Both wrote in elegiac couplets, used for centuries in Greek literature and translated into Latin by the time of Augustus. The pioneer of the genre was a friend of Virgil, Gaius Cornelius Gallus, who wrote four books of elegies to a pantomime he calls Lycoris; in real life her name was Cytheris and she had several lovers including Mark Antony. Gallus became prefect of Egypt, where he proved too independent for Augustus' regime; the Roman Senate tried and condemned him, and he committed suicide. His political misfortune overshadowed his poetry. Tibullus left two books of elegies. In the first he turns to Delia and in the second to a woman he calls Nemesis. Also in Messala's circle was a poetess, Sulpicia, probably Messala's niece, who wrote six short poems addressed to a man whom she called Cerinthus. They are little jewels of open passion. A more prolific poet than any other was Sextus Propertius, whose mistress was a woman he named Cynthia. Maecenas noticed her little book of 22 elegies entitled Cynthia and brought it into her circle. Like the other poets in Maecenas' stable, Propertius was urged to help popularize the principality (the constitutional rule of Augustus), but his heart was really with love poetry. Propertius is the most interesting of these love elegiacs if we look directly at the vicissitudes of his love affair.

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HORACE ON PATRIOTISM INTRODUCTION:

Horace (65-8 BC) owed his comfortable life to his patron Maecenas, among whose gifts was a small estate on the outskirts of Rome: his 'Sabine Farm', which became famous for his poetry. But Maecenas was a close friend and advisor to Emperor Augustus, and in return for his generosity, both Maecenas and Augustus expected Horatius to support the Empire's goals, one of which was to revive patriotism and morale among the Romans. This excerpt is from one of Horace's odes, written to please his patron. Some of his phrases are famous, such as dulce et decorum est pro patria mori (“Sweet and worthy to die for the fatherland” or, as the translation printed below puts it: “The glorious and decent way to die is for that Fatherland .” )”), which was inscribed on numerous cenotaphs for those who died in the war. Equally famous is the metaphor that closes the poem that revenge or punishment, however limping, seldom abandons the pursuit of a human being.

SOURCE: Horace, Odes. Book III Trans. James Michie (New York: Modern Library, 2002): 119, 121.

Value. But we must not be too quick to infer autobiographical details from their poetry, for they wrote within well-defined conventions. Sincerity was not considered a virtue in Latin poetry, and when a poet claims to be dying of love, he may only be expressing the conventional emotions his art form required. Sulpicia's poetry differs in only one respect: women were usually objects of male desire in elegiac love poetry, but Sulpicia is portrayed as a woman who longs for a mate as much as any man. Ovid. Ovid was really a man of letters. Challenging and technically brilliant, he effortlessly wrote poetry. Although not wealthy, he was wealthy enough to spare a patron and remained outside the circles of Maecenas and Messala. He began as an elegiac love poet. His collection, known as the Amores, follows the example of Tibullus and Propertius in chronicling romantic encounters, but while the love affairs of these two writers probably existed, Ovid's mistress Corina probably did not exist outside of literature. during 168

He wrote the Amores and worked on a more ambitious work, the Heroides (Heroines), letters in verse of mythological women addressed to their husbands or lovers. Among other things, he imagines Dido writing to Aeneas, Ariadne writing to Theseus of Naxos where he had abandoned her, and Medea writing to Jason after learning of his plans to abandon her and the daughter of the king of Corinth to marry. Ovid then turned to didactic poetry, but his subject was not as respectable as agriculture. Ovid wrote The Art of Love in three books, the first two instructing men in the art of seduction and the third teaching women who aspired to become courtesans how to bring out the best in their husbands. This was followed by a fourth book, Remedium Amoris, about how to fall in love. Ovid's greatest work is undoubtedly his Metamorphoses (changes in form). No one believed the old legends anymore, but they were still the subject of literature, and Ovid decided to bring them together under the common theme of shapeshifting. He tells myths that told how heroes and heroines shifted form like Actaeon who was

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transformed into a stag, or Alkyone transformed into an Alcyon bird. The resulting epic is a carpet of myth, told with wit and all the tricks that a rhetorically experienced author can muster. Then came his exile. Augustus descended to Tomis, current Costanza in Romania, for reasons unknown. He burned his Metamorphoses, but fortunately copies were already in circulation and they survive, albeit unfinished. Exile did not break Ovid, although he never saw his beloved Rome again. He wrote five books of Tristia (poems of pain); The first book was finished before it reached Tomis. He went on with his Letters from the Point; "Point" was the name of the Black Sea. He wrote Ibis, an attack on an imaginary character probably written as psychological salvation, and a poem about fish in the Black Sea. The main work of his exile was the Fasti, an accomplished Roman calendar of religious festivals. Ovid was finishing the first six months of the year, perhaps hoping that his interest in Roman religion would soften Augustus' heart. If that was his intention, he must have been disappointed with the result. Ovid died in exile.

Jasper Griffin, Vergil (Bristol, Inglaterra: Bristol Classical Press, 2001). WR Johnson, Darkness Visible: A Study of Vergils Aeneis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976). W. R. Johnson, „The Figure of Laertes“, in Vergil, 2000; Ensayos comemorativos sobre o poeta e sua influência. ed. John D. Bernard (Nueva York: AMS Press, 1986), 85–105. Sara Mack, Ovid (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1988). Alexander G. McKay, Itália de Vergil (Nueva York: Graphic Society, 1970). Niall Rudd, Hrsg., Horace 2000: Essays for the Millenium (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1993). David R. Slavitt, Vergil (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1991). —, überliefert, Propertius in Love: The Eglogues (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002). JP Sullivan, Propertius: Uma Introdução Critica (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976).

LIVY. The era of Augustus had a distinguished prose writer, Titus Livius, known in English as Livy, who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to his time in 142 books. He was the kind of historian who wrote to edify his readers, and the characters in his story were either heroes or villains. The healthiest outcome of knowing history, he told his readers, was to have examples of all possible behaviors, so a person could choose models who would know beforehand what the outcomes of their choices would be. He was not a careful researcher, but he had long-lost historians to consult, and this gives his work real value to the historian of the Roman Republic. Its history dates back to the Roman triumph over the last Macedonian king, Perseus, in 167 BC. Its style is smooth and its characterization lively, but its panorama of the Roman past is not an example of historical accuracy.

SILVER AGE OF LATIN LITERATURE

FUENTES

William S. Anderson, El arte de la Eneida (Englewood Cliffs, Nueva Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1969). David Armstrong, Horace (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1989). D. Thomas Benediktson, Propertius: Um Poeta Modernista da Antiguidade (Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 1989). Harold Bloom, Hrsg., Vergil (Nueva York: Chelsea House, 1986). Francis Cairns, Tibullus: A Helenistic Poet at Rome (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979). TA Dorey, Hrsg., Livy (Londres, Inglaterra: Routledge und Kegan Paul, 1971).

AGAIN

WRITER BEFORE THE DEATH OF NERO. The name "Latin Silver Age" applied to literature after the "Golden Age" under Augustus reflects the judgment of generations of scholars. Silver Age writers valued rhetorical skill and literary flourishes, creating a style distinctly different from ordinary human speech. Contemporary Greek writers have moved in the other direction; They were Attics, that is, they revived the style and even the dialect of the best Greek classical authors. His example didn't rub off on his Latino peers. Still, most of his lyrics are impressive. One poet, Marcus Manilius, wrote one didactic poem in five books on astrology. Calpurnius Siculus wrote pastoral poetry that drew heavily on Virgil's Eclogues. A former soldier, Velleius Paterculus, who served under the future emperor Tiberius, wrote a history of Rome in two books, and when it comes to his own time, it's a good historical source. Valerius Maximus collected nine books of proverbs and anecdotes under the title Remarkable Facts and Proverbs, and Phaedrus condensed Aesop's Fable. SENECA. Lucius Annaeus Seneca's family came from Roman Spain, and his father was a rhetorician known as Seneca the Elder to distinguish him from his son. Old Seneca's reputation stems from a collection of anecdotes about rhetoricians that he wrote in his old age. The young Seneca is known for his philosophical treatises: he was a Stoic who did not know how to practice

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what he preached—four works of prose—one of them an amusing but cruel essay on the disgust with which the gods greeted the late Emperor Claudius when he entered their company, after he had been declared divine by the Roman Senate—and nine tragedies. The tragedies were based on Greek originals, except for Thyestes, who tells how the father of Agamemnon and Menelaus, Atreus, Thyestes supported his own children. The job allowed Seneca to express his love of blood and gore. He reworked Euripides' Medea and turned Medea into a bloodthirsty witch. His Phaedra reworks Euripides' Hippolytus, giving Phaedra nymphomaniac tendencies and making Hippolytus a misogynist. It is generally accepted that these works were intended for public reading to a select audience, not for production in large theaters for the masses whose tastes were directed towards interpretive dance and pantomime. Seneca's plays appealed only to the educated elite associated with Athens' Golden Age of Tragedy in the 5th century BC. was familiar. COLUMELLA. Like Seneca, Lucius Junius Columella was from Spain, but his interests were quite different. After a career in the Roman army, he acquired estates in Lazio outside Rome and began farming. His De Re Rustica (On Agriculture) is a treatise on scientific agriculture. It offers a picture of the countryside of central Italy at the time, with its growing number of country houses for wealthy Romans and their absentee owners. His cure for the decline of agriculture in Italy was hard work, personal supervision and mastery of the science of agriculture. GAIO PETRONIO. The novel as a literary form became popular in Greece in the early Imperial period, and Petronius chose to use it for what he called saturae: the "mixture" of writing. It is now known as the Satyricon. It's a picaresque novel (relating to the adventures of tramps), but instead of the hero and heroine of Greek novels having a series of wild adventures as they wander from place to place, Petronius has a trickster named Encolpius and a cheeky boy named Encolpius. Giton. . Only fragments survive, but a sizeable portion, describing a feast given by a wealthy ex-slave named Trimalchio, is a masterpiece. The feast was an orgy of food, and Trimalchio takes vulgarity to impressive heights. A favorite of the Emperor Nero, Petronius invented orgies for this pleasure-seeking Emperor until court intrigues destroyed him and he committed suicide with grace and irony, as befitted a man of his talent. MARCO ANNEO LUCANO. The fame of Lucan, Seneca the Younger's nephew, rests on one work: his epic poem about the civil war between Caesar and the Senate party led by Pompey. Your name, the 170

Pharsalia comes from the decisive battle fought in Greece at Pharsalus, modern Pharsalus in Thessaly, where Pompey's army was defeated. Lucan's style is a bit contrived, but he's a smooth verse. His sympathies were with Pompey and the republican form of government advocated by Pompey. All of this suited the then popular Stoic philosopher, who looked longingly at the republic that had perished in the civil war. Lucan died young. He was implicated in a conspiracy against Nero and bled to death, reciting some of his own lines about bleeding to death as he exhaled his last breath. PERSIAN. Little is known of Aulus Persius Flaccus except that he left a collection of six satires and died young. The first on the decline of literary taste, the second on the vanity of wealth, the third on idleness, the fourth on self-knowledge, the fifth on true freedom, and the sixth on the proper use of wealth. His poems are full of allusions to contemporary life. His fourth satire, for example, exhorts a popular statesman named Alcibiades to examine his soul and ignore public adulation. There was an Alcibiades who was a 5th century BC Athenian politician. was. C.E., but perhaps the "Alcibiades" that Persius has in mind has Emperor Nero. Persius' style is not easy to read. It's not for beginners in Latin. But his small accomplishment reveals an interesting talent. THE SILVER AGE AFTER EMPEROR NERO. Whatever the Emperor Nero's faults, he was a culturally sensitive esthete, and his death in AD 68 did not improve the literary artist's fate. The Flavian dynasty—the emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, who succeeded the Julio-Claudian clan that included emperors from Augustus to Nero—was of Sabine peasant origin. The Flavians were sensitive to the lack of background information, and Domitian in particular was a menacing and fearsome presence. Under Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius (who died 180 BC) there was greater liberty, but there was comfortable mediocrity then, and that didn't explode until the fourth century AD. literary talent. Nevertheless, the time was not without its writers. Silius Italicus was one such figure; His main position was as an informant under Nero, leaking information on potential enemies of the regime, although he later cleaned up his reputation by earning praise for his administration in the province of Asia. He wrote an epic titled Punica about Rome's wars with Carthage, called the Punic Wars after the Latin word for Carthage: poenus. The standards are right, but as poetry it's secondary. He likes to show off his learning, and the result is more tiring.

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something impressive. Papinius Statius, writing under Domitian, whom he used to flatter, left five books of Silvae, several poems on various subjects, and two epics, the second unfinished. The first epic was Thebaid and covered the Theban legends: how Oedipus killed his father, how his sons fought for the throne and killed each other, and how Creon ascended the throne. The poem reflects the era's taste for romance through its incorporation of killing, exaggerated passions, and high-flown sentiments. The second epic, Achilles, tells the myth of how Achilles' mother Thetis tried to save her son from being drafted into the Trojan War by disguising him as a woman and hiding him among the girls at the Trojan king's court. Skyrus. Statius wrote 1,127 lines on the subject, but died before he could write more. Valerius Flaccus wrote an epic about the legend of Jason and the Golden Fleece, taking the Argonauticus of Apollonius of Rhodes as a model. Quintilian, son and grandson of rhetoricians, is known for his training as an orator. His perfect orator was Cicero, and he concluded that all advances since Cicero's time had brought oratory to the bottom. Martial was a master of the epigram: the short poem that ends with a sharp, moving wit. He took his subjects from contemporary life and threw an interesting spotlight on them. Suetonius, secretary to the emperor Hadrian, wrote biographies in plain Latin, and one collection survives complete: his Lives of the Twelve Caesars, from Julius Caesar to Domitian. Shortly after Suetonius, another author wrote the only Greek or Latin novel comparable to Petronius' Satyricon: Apuleius, whose tale Metamorphosis, better known as the Golden Ass, tells how the hero Lucius tried sorcery and managed to free himself to turn into a donkey. We also have another work of Apuleius when he married a wealthy widow and was accused by his relatives of winning her affections by sorcery. The Apology of Apuleius is the speech he gave in his own defense before a court at Sabratha in present-day Libya. Of all the authors belonging to these last, somewhat tarnished years of the Silver Age, there are three that should stop us: Juvenal, Pliny the Younger, and the historian Tacitus, because they were outstanding practitioners of their literary genre. YOUNG. Juvenal was a bitter man. Life in Rome did not treat him well, judging by his poetry, and after the Emperor Domitian died and the veil of fear lifted, Juvenal wrote satires, sixteen in number, attacking the evil of contemporary life. He didn't like the women, all immigrants from the East, mostly Jews, closely followed by the Greeks: the greed, the miserable rich and the horrors of living in poorly constructed apartment buildings.

of Rome He attacked scoundrels by name, although he only took on scoundrels who were already dead to avoid retaliation. He is the source of the aphorism that the Roman mafia cared only about bread and circuses. He accepted the dictum of the Stoic philosophers that all transgressions are equal, and thus accused Emperor Nero of murdering his mother and writing bad poetry as sins of equal magnitude. He himself was a good poet, writing powerful verse in hexameter. Pliny the Younger. The reputation of Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, Pliny the Younger's full name, may have been surpassed by his uncle Pliny the Elder, an encyclopedia author who died in the AD 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius, except that the only one Father Pliny's surviving work is his Natural History, which is a treasure trove of information, but not casual reading. Pliny the Younger is known for his collection of encouraging letters, apparently written to various contemporaries, including the historian Tacitus, to whom he addressed an eyewitness account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The last book of his collected letters is the correspondence between himself and Emperor Trajan, for Trajan sent Pliny to the province of Bithynia in Asia Minor around 110 AD. to correct the mismanagement there. Among the topics of conversation with Trajan was a cell of Christians that he found. Pliny wanted to know the legal status of Christianity, and Trajan replied that it was forbidden, although he warned against any witch hunt. For historians of Christianity this is an important test; tacitly defines the attitude of the Roman state towards Christianity in the second century AD. Cornelius Tacitus wrote five works: a dialogue on orators, apparently the first; a biography of his father-in-law Agricola; an essay about Germany, the Germania; and his two great works, his histories and his annals. The first is a discussion of the previous speakers, which Cicero gives full marks. Agricola ruled Roman Britain under Domitian, and thus the biography of Tacitus contributes significantly to the knowledge of Britain in the years following its conquest under Emperor Claudius. The stories begin with the turmoil that followed Nero's death when there were four emperors in AD 68 and ended two years later. The rest is lost. The annals are also mutilated; Tacitus begins with Emperor Tiberius, but Caligula's reign is lost. Still, Tacitus' account of Claudius and Nero is great. Tacitus knew firsthand the misery of Rome under the tyrant Domitian, and when he describes these early emperors he sees them as the forerunners of Domitian. His skills of description were superb and he is the last great Latin historian until the 4th century AD Wenn

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Taking Tacitus as a model, Ammianus Marcellinus produces a story that compares well with any other in Latin, although Ammianus was Greek and Latin was presumably his second language. SOURCES

Frederick Abel, Lucan (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1976). Philip B. Corbett, Petronius (New York: Twayne, 1970). MD Grant, “Plautus and Seneca. Acting in Nero's Rome", Greece and Rome 46 (1999): 27-53. GO Hutchinson, Latin Literature from Seneca to Juvenal (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1993). Ronald Mellor, Tacitus (London, England: Routledge, 1993). Anna Lydia Motto, Seneca (New York: Twayne, 1973). Victoria Rimell, Petronius and the Anatomy of Fiction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

IMPERIAL GREEK LITERATURE

AGAIN

MODIFIED TERMS. When Queen Cleopatra of Egypt 30 BC The last independent Hellenistic monarchy disappeared and the entire eastern Mediterranean came under Roman rule. The Hellenistic kings were replaced by Roman governors, whose administrative language was Latin. However, Roman rule was easy. At the local level, cities ruled the people. Each Roman province contained several cities, some very ancient, others dating back to the founding of a Hellenistic king or even to Alexander the Great himself. Alexandria, Egypt, was not the only city Alexander founded; The Middle East was dotted with cities called "Alexandria" that claimed Alexander as their founder. The Roman governor set up his headquarters in the most important city in his province and was particularly interested in law and order and ensuring that taxes were paid; but within certain limits the cities were left to govern themselves. Governors cultivated local elites and maintained the loyalty of wealthy landowners who rejoiced in the protection of an empire that safeguarded their economic interests, but at the same time looked with pride on Greece's golden age and its great literary achievements. The literature of Greece under the Roman Empire reflected this view: pride in the past and support, or at least approval, of the Roman Empire. Rome would not tolerate anything resembling turmoil. CLASSICISM. The taste of the new imperial era ushered in by Emperor Augustus was classic. so 172

looked for his models in the Greek classics (480-330 BC). Taste is reflected in the fine arts of the Roman Empire as much as in literary taste. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek professor of rhetoric who lived around 30 BC. settled in Rome. E.C., expressed the same opinion in the various treatises on literary style which he wrote; his On Ancient Orators defends the Athenian or "Attic" style of oratory exemplified by Demosthenes and rejects the elaborate "Asiatic" style that replaced the Attic style in the Hellenistic period. We find the same taste for the past in the essays of two major essayists of the time, Plutarco and Luciano. PLUTARCH. Plutarch (c. AD 40–c. 120) is best known for his Parallel Lives: Paired Greek and Roman Biographical Essays, in which Plutarch juxtaposed the life of a famous Greek with that of a Roman whose career was somewhat similar. , and follow each pair with a comparison. Alongside his parallel lives we have a large collection of essays grouped under the heading Moralia: 'Moral Essays', where the adjective 'moral' means 'based on the general observation of people'. Their subjects are very diverse: religion, music, philosophy, superstition (which Plutarch hated), love and divine justice. It was typical of Greeks who were happy to cooperate with their Roman rulers but were proud Greeks nonetheless. Lucian (ca. 117–after 180 AD), born in Samosata, now the city of Samsat in Syria, tried his hand at a legal career before turning to lecturing and traveling around the empire giving public lectures. In his forties he settled in Athens and wrote satirical essays that laughed at the life and beliefs of conventional Greeks and Romans. As old age began to creep up on him, he accepted a position on the Egyptian governor's staff, thereby joining the "establishment" that had been the butt of his humor. His favorite literary forms were dialogue and letters; the former is taken from both the theater and Plato's dialogues, and the epistle should be a letter addressed to someone: thus his essay on a charlatan, Alexander von Abonoteichos, takes the form of a letter to a certain Celsus. Alexander invented a religion centered around a god named Glycon, whom he incarnated as a large, tame serpent fitted with an artificial head with a mouthpiece so the serpent could make prophecies and answer questions, like the Wizard of Oz. Lucian ends his letter with the hope that it will help the common reader, shatter his illusions and confirm any sensible ideas he might have had. LUCIAN. Lucian was brought up under a system heavily influenced by a literary movement known as the "Second Sophist". He taught that an author should model his content and style on the best Greek authors in history.

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past, and the most obvious way to do this was to use many quotations and allusions to these authors. He also placed great emphasis on rhetorical exercises, and the movement's main "sophists" were orators who delivered declamations, often before large audiences who flocked to hear them in theaters or music halls (called "odeons") or other buildings . . The movement received the designation “Second Sophist” from its memoirist Philostratus, who belonged to a literary family on the island of Lemnos. Philostratus called the literary revival he related in his Lives of the Sophists the "second Sophist". The "sophists" of Philostratus were polished and learned orators who differed from the sophists of the classical period of the 5th and 4th centuries BC. should distinguish. They were men like Dio of Prusa, nicknamed Chrysostom ("Golden Mouth"), who lived c. AD 40–110, Aelius Aristides (117–189 BC), and Maximus of Tire (c. 125–185 A.D.). His repertoire of speeches celebrated both the power and bounty of Rome and Greece's glorious past. Today its sociological content is more interesting than its literary excellence. Aelius Aristides, for example, wrote a eulogy for Rome, which shared power with the ruling classes among the subject peoples and granted them Roman citizenship as a reward for their cooperation. Aristides opens a window into the psychology of Greece under Roman rule. THE SOAP OPERA. The writing of novels did not begin with the "second sophistry", but this was the time of its great development. In fact, Dio de Prusa included a soap opera in one of his sets. The other novels we have are Chaereas and Callirhoe by Chariton, An Ephesian Tale by Xenophon, Leucippe and Clitophon by Achilles Tatius, Daphnis and Chloe by Longus and Aethiopica by Heliodorus. For us, authors are just names. The plots are filled with voyages and adventures involving pirates, shipwrecks and untimely burials, and the characters live in a world where everything is determined by chance, but otherwise they offer considerable variation. The Chariton Romance, possibly dating to the first century BC. it is a historical novel; Chariton places it after the Athenian campaign in Sicily (415-434 BC), which took place in the Peloponnesian War and ended in disaster at Syracuse. Her heroine, Callirhoe, is the daughter of Hermocrates, the Syracusan leader of the resistance against Athens. Daphnis and Chloe is the story of a shepherd, Daphnis, and his lover Chloe, who, like the characters in a new Greek comedy, are the children of wealthy parents. These novels have religious undertones. Xenophon's History of Ephesus celebrates the cult of Artemis of Ephesus and Heliodorus celebrates the

Worship of the sun god, known in Rome as Sol Invictus. In this sense they resemble Apuleius' Latin novel The Golden Ass, which is a better novel than any other. It should come as no surprise that some of the Christian apocryphal gospels, as well as the stories of Christian saints, borrow features from the novel. THE ACCEPTANCE OF THE ROMAN RULE. The underlying theme of historians writing in Greek was the acceptance of Roman rule and the acknowledgment of the benefits it brought to their subjects. The same Dionysius of Halicarnassus who wrote On the Ancient Orators also wrote a history of ancient Rome entitled Roman Antiquities, covering the period from the beginnings of Rome to the beginning of its history by Polybius with Rome's first war with Carthage (265-241 AD). BC) covered. ). .). Its purpose was to celebrate the empire of Rome and also to demonstrate a special relationship between Greece and Rome and to show that Rome's origins were Greek. Flavius Josephus (AD 37–100), a Jew who took part in the Judean rebellion against Rome that broke out in AD 66. but he went over to the Roman side in AD 67, writing the history of the revolt in his Jewish War, a seven-volume work written in the tradition of the great classical historians Herodotus and Thucydides. His writing goals, he tells the reader, were to remind the victors of the war of the courage of the men who conquered them, and also to comfort the defeated Jews and urge them to reflect on their failed rebellion. Josephus wrote another important work, his Jewish Antiquities on Jewish history, and a treatise entitled Against Apion, which is a response to an anti-Semitic treatise written by an otherwise unknown person named Apion. Josephus accepted Roman rule but remained proud of his Jewish heritage. The Egyptian Appian, born in the late first century AD, emphasized the benefits of Roman rule in his Roman history. He was not an original researcher, he was an official historian, but his organization was an effort at a new approach. He wrote a history of Rome's conquests, city by city and region by region. He has not entirely abandoned the analytical technique with which the historian presents last year's spectacle, but he has endeavored to treat Rome's wars of conquest as separate military operations. ARIAN. Arrian, or Flavius Arrian to give his full name, was governor of Cappadocia in Asia Minor under Emperor Hadrian (AD 117–138), where he led an invasion of an Iranian tribe in AD 134 Alans defeated. He was a student of the philosopher Epictetus and, like Xenophon with Socrates, preserved his teachings. His most important surviving work is his Anabasis, which borrows its title from Xenophon's Anabasis.

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sis ("The March to the Land"), but Arrian's "March" is the story of the conquest of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great (334-323 BC). He based his story on memoirs by Ptolemy, Alexander's general, who became king of Egypt and founded the Ptolemaic dynasty, culminating in Cleopatra's suicide in 30 BC. . Arrian's account is a sobering tale and a valuable source for Alexander's campaign, for historians of the same time survive only in fragments. GER-CASIO. Cassius Dio deserves special attention as he is an important source for Roman history. Born in 163 or 164 AD in Iznik, in modern Turkey, in ancient Nicaea, he was the son of a consul and became consul and provincial governor under Emperor Septimius Severus (193–211 AD). He began writing during the reign of Caracalla (AD 211–217), one of Rome's most hated emperors. Its history, beginning with the beginnings of Rome to 229 BC. It was a mighty work, taking ten years to prepare and twelve years to write. Some of these survive, and for the missing parts we have summaries written by later authors in Byzantine times. For the reign of Augustus, the first Roman Emperor (27 BC – 14 AD), Cassius Dio's account is the most complete we have. CHRISTIAN WRITER. Although Christianity was still in its infancy in the first century AD, it began producing its own literature almost immediately after the crucifixion of its founder Jesus in AD 33. The earliest writings were letters exchanged between Jesus' disciples and converts, later collected as the New Testament of the Bible. As persecution of the Christian church increased, other writings commemorated the martyrs. One of the earliest examples is a group of seven letters written by Bishop Ignatius of Antioch, who in his old age was taken to Rome to be executed sometime during the reign of Emperor Trajan (AD 98–117). Guarded by ten Roman soldiers, whom he refers to in a letter as "ten leopards", he traveled through modern Turkey to Smyrna (present-day Izmir), where he wrote letters to nearby Christian communities and from there to the Hellespont. , where he boarded a ship for Rome. The keeper of Ignatius' letters was the Bishop of Smyrna, Polycarp, who was burned alive in the Smyrna arena in AD 156 at the age of 86; The story of his martyrdom survives in Greek, Latin, Syriac and Coptic versions. Excuses, that is, defenses of the Christian faith, appear in the second century CE; one of the first, notable for its forgiving tone, was that of Justin 174

the martyr born in Shechem (present-day Nablus in Israel). Their apologies are clear explanations of Christianity to non-Christians; his First Apology, written around AD 150, is addressed to the Emperor Antoninus Pius, and his Dialogue with Trypho tells of a discussion with a Jewish rabbi, ending on a note of mutual tolerance and respect. By the third century AD, Christian theology borrowed from Greek philosophers. The most brilliant theologian of the time was Origen (AD 185-254), who studied philosophy in Alexandria, where he associated himself with Plotinus, the founder of Neoplatonism, the mystical interpretation of Plato that would be the last great school of pagan philosophy should. After teaching for some time in Alexandria, Origen moved to Caesarea, Palestine, where among other things he edited the first critical edition of the Old Testament. During the brief but violent persecution of Christians under Emperor Decius (AD 249–251), Origen was tortured and never recovered from the ordeal. Later, Christian clergymen decided that Origen had too closely associated Greek philosophy with Christianity and condemned him as a heretic. The same fate befell the greatest Latin theologian, Tertullian, who was born in Carthage, North Africa, around AD 155, converted to Christianity at the age of forty, and later abandoned Catholicism for the heresy of Montanism, taught by a Christian in Phrygia Founded . . (in western Turkey) who claimed to have a new revelation from the Holy Spirit. Tertullian authored more than thirty treatises on all aspects of life, from women's fashion to arena sports. But the great age of Latin theology came in the fourth and fifth centuries AD, after the empire had become Christian, with men like St Augustine and St Jerome. SOURCES

G. Bowersock, Hrsg., Approaches to the Second Sophistry (Philadelphia, Pa.: American Philological Association, 1974). H. Chadwick, Early Christian Thought and the Classical Tradition (Oxford, Inglaterra: Oxford University Press, 1966). Thomas Haegg, The Novel in Antiquity (Oxford, Inglaterra: Oxford University Press, 1983). C. P. Jones, Kultur und Gesellschaft in Lucian (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986). —, Plutarco e Roma (Oxford, Inglaterra: Oxford University Press, 1971). George Kennedy, The Art of Rhetoric in the Roman Empire (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972). BE Perry, The Ancient Romances: A Literary-Histórico Account of Their Origins (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967). DA Russell, Plutarco (Londres, Inglaterra: Duckworth, 1973).

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Important Persons in Literature A SCILIO c. 525 BC -C. 456 BC The early years of the poet. The tragedian Aeschylus was born in 525 or 524 BC. in Eleusis, now a suburb of Athens. and died 68 years later in Gela, Sicily. The dates of his life place him squarely in the formative period of the golden age of classical Greek culture. When he was born, Athens was ruled by a tyrant named Hippias, but after Hippias' exile in 510 B.C. C. Athens opted for a constitutional government in which political power resided in a popular assembly where all citizens could vote. The formative period of Aeschylus therefore coincided with the development of Athens as a democracy. Aeschylus presented his first tragedies in the seventieth Olympiad, i.e. in the period between the seventy-first Olympiad, which puts the date between 499 and 496 BC. 490 BC CE Aeschylus fought at Marathon, where the Athenians defeated a Persian expeditionary force that landed there and lost a brother in battle. Ten years later, Aeschylus found himself in the midst of a naval battle on the island of Salamis, where the Greek allies had defeated the Persian fleet. These experiences with the Persians in battle inspired him in 472 BC. to his production of The Persians. second in a trilogy of tragedies; the first was called Phineus and the third Glaucus Potnieus. There was no apparent connection between the three dramas, and the satyr play that was the final play in Aeschylus' staging, Prometheus the Bringer of Fire, must have been a parody of the myth that Prometheus bestowed fire on mankind. The Persians differed from Aeschylus' other plays produced on the same day in that its subject matter was drawn from contemporary history and was a patriotic homage to Athena's courage. AESCYLOS AND SICILY. A few years after Salamis, Aeschylus left Athens for Sicily, where the tyrant of Syracuse, Hiero, had founded a new city, Mount Etna, and wanted Aeschylus to celebrate the founding with a drama. Aeschylus' play The Women of Etna seems to have been no ordinary tragedy but a parade in honor of the new city; Some surviving fragments of papyrus give an idea of what it was like. Aeschylus was

468 BC BC again in Athens. as he entered the tragic competition and was defeated by a new tragic poet, Sophocles, who made his debut that year. The following year, Aeschylus won with a trilogy about the tragic character Oedipus, who was destined to kill his father and marry his mother. One of these tragedies survives: The Seven Against Thebes, which tells the conflict between the sons of Oedipus. 458 BC he produced his masterpiece, the Oresteia, the only surviving complete trilogy consisting of three tragedies: Agamemnon, the Libations, and the Furies. Soon after, for reasons unknown, he left Athens again for Sicily. It is possible that he did not agree with some political events in Athens. Anyway, he died around 456 BC. at Gela, Sicily. According to legend, Aeschylus was killed when an eagle flying overhead mistook his bald head for a rock and threw a tortoise at him to shatter his shell. The story isn't entirely believable, but it offers a spicy ending to a great tragedy. The epitaph on his monument in Gela, which is said to have been written by him himself, proudly mentions having fought the Persians at the Battle of Marathon, but omits any reference to his success as a tragic poet. SOURCES

DJ Conacher, Aeschylus: The Early Plays and Related Studies (Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Michael Gagarin, Aeschylian Drama (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976). John Herington, Esquilo (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1986). Shirley Darcus Sullivan, Aeschylus' Use of Psychological Terminology: Traditional and New (Montreal, Canada: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1997).

CATUS 234 BC -149 BC POLITICAL HISTORIAN. Cato was the author of the first surviving Latin prose work and the first Roman historian to write a history of Rome in Latin. He was born in 234 B.C. at Tusculum near modern Frascati in the hills around Rome. C. and spent his early years on a small farm in the countryside, working in the fields alongside farmhands. At seventeen he enlisted in the Roman army and served in the long war against the Carthaginian Hannibal, which Rome did not end until 202 BC. won. He settled around 208 BC. in Rome. and four years later began his political career, where he achieved the coveted post of consul in 195

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He remained in many ways a village Italian, faithful to his native customs and outraged by the "Phillenenism" - passion for and imitation of all things Greek - which infected the circle around Scipio Africanus, the conqueror of Hannibal, and his brother Lucius Scipio. . The Scipian circle admired Greek culture and wanted to introduce it to Rome. In Cato's eyes, the Greek way of life meant abandoning the frugality, self-discipline, and honesty that were the Roman ideal. 187 BC C.E. Cato managed to destroy the political career of Scipio Africanus and won in 184 B.C. Chr. elections as censor. He continued to dominate Roman politics until his death, three years before the final destruction of Carthage, which Cato vigorously defended in his later years. CATUS' WRITINGS. What has survived from Cato's writings is an essay on agriculture that lays out rules for good farming. Cato was a man who feared the gods, but he was hard and unsentimental. For example, he advised getting rid of old slaves who could no longer do their share of the work. This is the oldest surviving Latin prose. Cato also wrote a history of Rome, the Origines, which he wrote about 172 BC. to write. It dealt not only with the early history of Rome, but also with the origins of neighboring Italian cities, hence the title "Origins". Earlier Romans wrote stories about Rome, beginning with Fabius Pictor, who wrote his story in Greek for Greek readers, but Cato was the first to write in Latin. He was also famous as a speaker in his time. There is a certain irony in the fact that it was Cato who brought the epic poet Ennius to Rome, where he played an important role in introducing Greek culture, and indeed, in his old age, Cato himself began to learn Greek. SOURCES

A. Astin, Cato der Zensor (Oxford, Inglaterra: Clarendon Press, 1978). Elizabeth Rawson, Intellectual Life in the Late Roman Republic (Londres, Inglaterra: Duckworth, 1985).

THUCIDIDE c. 460 BC -C. 400 BC ONE OF THE GREATEST HISTORIANS OF GREECE. Thucydides, who wrote a history of the Peloponnesian War between the two power blocs led by Athens and Sparta (431-404 BC), is considered by most scholars to be the greatest Greek historian, although some rank his work first. Former contemporary, Herodotus. However, we are not well informed about his life. 176

What we know about him comes from the few autobiographical fragments he includes in his Historia and from a brief and dubious vida written by someone named Marcelino. From these sources we can deduce a date of birth and death that was probably sudden and unexpected, given that his story is mid-sentence in the winter of 411 BC. ends. He belonged to the upper class of Athens and his family had shares in a mine in Thrace, which ensured him a regular income. When Athens 430 BC. was struck by the plague. He fell ill but recovered and used the experience to write a clinical description of the disease. In the year 424 BC C. he was elected one of ten generals elected by the Athenians each year, and thanks in part to his leadership failure, the strategic city of Amphipolis in northern Greece fell to Sparta. He was banished from Athens for his failure and remained in exile until the end of the war between Athens and Sparta. Although his exile took him away from Athens, it gave him a better opportunity to gather information from the rest of Greece. His demands on the source evaluation were high: if he was not a witness to an event himself, he looked for credible eyewitnesses. He lived to see the end of the war, but left his work unfinished and parts of it unrevised. The circumstances of his death are unknown. However, he was buried in the family tomb of the Athenian statesman Cimon, who was Pericles' conservative rival early in Pericles' career. Despite his family connection to the anti-Pericles camp, he became a supporter of Pericles in his mature years because he admired his ability to keep the radical elements of Athenian democracy in check. HE WROTE ABOUT THE PELOPONESIAN WAR. Thucydides explains in the introduction to his story that early in the Peloponnesian War he realized that this would be the greatest war Greece had ever seen, surpassing the Trojan War and the war against Persia. Both opponents were at the height of their power, and before the war was over, it involved Sicily and Persia. However, the war would serve to show that unforeseen events could derail even the best of plans. The plague that broke out in 430 B.C. BC Athens afflicted. undermine his power. The great Athenian leader Pericles fell ill, and although he survived the immediate onslaught of the plague, he died in 429 BC. in the consequences. Thucydides recognized his death as a turning point in the fortunes of Athens, as none of the politicians who succeeded him enjoyed the broad support he had. Indeed, there is a subtle anti-democratic tendency in the story of Thucydides; He clearly doubted the ability of a government to conduct wars wisely when decisions were made by an assembly of all citizens, as was the case in Athens. However, he admired the indomitable spirit of Athena.

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After the Athenians in 413 BC. had suffered a catastrophic loss of their entire expeditionary force in Sicily. They were still fighting in their campaign to conquer Syracuse (modern-day Syracuse) and might still have won if Persia had not provided Sparta with the means to build a fleet. Thucydides clearly intended to end the story, but his story ends abruptly in 411 BC. Various reasons have been suggested as to why the story is incomplete, but the most likely is that he died suddenly. Someone took the unfinished work and published it after Thucydides died. It is an in-depth study of war and the impact of wartime stress on civil society. There are also traces of the tragedy. Like the protagonist (leading man) of a Greek tragedy, Athenian democracy recklessly entered the war and was overthrown by a series of unwise moves. However, fateful mechanisms also lurked behind Athena's defeat. Not even the best plans could foresee the plague and the death of Pericles. SOURCES

W. R. Connor, Thukydides (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1984). Simon Hornblower, Tucídides (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987). Clifford Orwin, La humanidad de Tucídides (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). Dennis Proctor, The Experience of Tucydides (Warminster, Inglaterra: Aris und Phillips, 1980). A. G. Woodhead, Tucídides e a Natureza do Poder (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970).

V ERGIL 70 B.C. 19 BC - 19 BC Poet DOING THE POET. Virgil was born in the Andes in 70, probably in present-day Pietole, in the Po Valley in northern Italy. Virgil was born a provincial because at the time of his birth the Po Valley was still the province of Cisalpine Gaul (i.e. Gaul south of the Alps), encompassing the entire region up to the Rubicon River. Roman citizenship was not granted until 49 BC. extended to Virgil's home region. Seven years later, Cisalpine Gaul was incorporated into Italy. His father was a small landowner who made his living from beekeeping and managed to send his son to Cremona, then to Milan and finally to Rome to learn rhetoric and train as a lawyer, but he only appeared once court and ruled against it. He. Instead he went to Naples B.E.C.

and entered a philosophical school headed by the Epicurean Siro. He may have already been writing poetry, since a number of poems (fourteen short works and five longer works) are attributed to him in this period, but modern Virgil scholars doubt that he was the author. THE ECLOGES AND THE GEORGIC. In the year 42 BC A catastrophe struck Virgil's family. The troops were demobilized after Caesar's assassins were defeated at the Battle of Philippi, and in order to find land to settle them, farms in the Po Valley were confiscated, including the possessions of Virgil's family. They may have been restored, however, since the first of Virgil's pastoral poems, known as Eclogas, a conversation between the shepherds Melibeo and Tityrus, possibly by Virgil himself, refers to a restoration. Virgil's didactic poem on the art of agriculture, the Georgik (the title comes from the Greek word for agriculture), was written between 36 and 29 BC. written. in honor of Virgil's patron and friend Maecenas, but never misses an opportunity to praise Emperor Augustus. Virgil, who was born a provincial, was not nostalgic for the old Roman republic, which governed the Roman provinces poorly, and appreciated the conquest of Augustus, who strove to establish law, order, and good government in Italy and the empire. THE ENVY. Augustus wanted an epic in his own honor, and Virgil undertook the task. He chose the Trojan hero Aeneas as his subject, since the Julian family to which Augustus belonged claimed Aeneas as their ancestor. Virgil spent the last ten years of his life writing the Aeneid. 19 B.C. He went to Greece to travel Greece and Asia for three years, completing the Aeneid and immersing himself in philosophy for the rest of his life. But in Athens he met Emperor Augustus and was persuaded to return to Italy with him. He fell ill during the voyage and was taken back to Italy, only to die in Brundisium (modern-day Brundisi), the preferred port for ships crossing the Adriatic Sea from Greece. Virgil asked his literary executors Varius and Tucca to burn his unfinished Aeneid, but Augustus ordered them to ignore this instruction and instead publish the poem in its unfinished state. The poem shows a certain lack of completion in a few places, but time claimed Augustus' reign. The Aeneid became the national epic of the Roman Empire. The character of Aeneas, a Trojan warrior who fought against the Greeks in the legendary Trojan War, flees Troy after being sacked; He endures many hardships on a journey that takes him to pre-Roman Italy, where he lays the foundations for Rome's future greatness. He

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It is curious that Virgilio emphasizes the "strangeness" of Aeneas in the work; He began writing the Aeneid only a year after the Battle of Actium, which Augustus' propaganda portrayed as a victory of Italian values over the decaying East represented by Cleopatra. However, Aeneas is Asian, and the epic ends with the relentless assassination of Turnus, the leader of the Italian resistance to his invasion. However, the final agreement approved by Jupiter is for the Asiatic Trojans to be assimilated. They will abandon their language and embrace Latin, and even the gods of Rome will bear Jupiter's seal of approval. They will not be Trojan gods. Aeneas and his Trojan followers find no new Troy in Italy. Rather, they provide an example of the assimilation to the idea of Rome by the various nationalities that would later make up the Roman citizenship. SOURCES

John D. Bernard, Hrsg., Vergil em 2000; Memorial Essays on the Poet and His Influence (Nova York: AMS Press, 1986). WA Camps, Eine Einführung in Virgils „Aeneis“ (Oxford, Inglaterra: Oxford University Press, 1969). K. W. Gransden, A Ilíada de Virgílio; Um ensaio sobre narrativa épica (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). MC J. Putnam, The Poetry of the Aeneis (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965). —, The Pastoral Art of Vergil (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1970).

DOCUMENTARY LITERATURE SOURCES Aeschylus, Oresteia (525–456 BC) — The Oresteia consists of three tragic plays: Agamemnon, Coephorus, and Eumenides. The only complete surviving trilogy of ancient Greek tragedies, it deals with revenge and counter-revenge in the context of a blood feud within Agamemnon's family. Alcaeus of Lesbos (c. 620–after 580 BC) - Alcaeus was a lyric poet who wrote songs generally for solo performance: drinking songs, hymns to the gods, love poetry and poems about contemporary politics. Only fragments of his works have survived. Apollonius Rhodius, The Argonautica (c. 260-247 BC) - This work is an epic poem about the story of Jason and his quest for the Golden Fleece, written at a time when long epics were out of fashion. 178

Aristophanes, The Clouds (423 BC): Written in the style of 'old comedy' dramaturgy, The Clouds avoids the political themes of other Athenian plays and satirizes Socrates and the education he offered to Athenian youth. Cornelius Tacitus, Histories (after AD 96, Annals (after AD 115): The Histories and Annals together, when complete, cover the history of the first century AD from the perspective of a Roman, who thought that liberty had perished along with the overthrown republic Julius Caesar Demosthenes, on the Crown (330 BC): This speech was delivered in court to defend Demosthenes against his anti-Macedonian policies of the last 25 years.Written and published, it is considered the masterpiece of Euripides' greatest 4th century BC Athenian orator, Medea (431 BC): This tragic work is famous for its psychological insight in its depiction of a woman suffering from an illness after the Ascension of the Persian Empire and its conflict with Greece in the years 480-479 BC, this historical work earned Herodotus the title "Father of History." centered on an incident in the Trojan War, represents the culmination of epic oral tradition in Greece. Homer is also credited with the Odyssey, the story of how the hero Odysseus returned home after the Trojan War. Petronius Inquisitor, Satyricon (c. 60–65 BC): An elegant and voluptuous man in Emperor Nero's court, Petronius wrote a lengthy novel, unique in Latin literature, unparalleled in Greek literature, which tells the adventures of three young villains. in southern Italy. Fragments survive, including a long description of a festival given by a wealthy freedman, Trimalchio. Pindar, Epinician Odes (“Odes of Victory”) (518–438 BC) – Written to commemorate athletic victories at the Olympic Games, Pythian, Nemean or Isthmian, these lyrical poems are the only ones that in its entirety of which many Pindar wrote. . Publius Vergilius Maro, Aeneid (30-19 BC) - Virgil's masterpiece, widely considered Rome's greatest poet, is the Aeneid, which tells the story as the Trojan did

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The hero Aeneas escaped Troy, landed in Italy, and founded the royal line that would eventually produce Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome. Quintus Ennius, The Annals (c. 170 BC) - The playwright, satirist, and epic poet Ennius detailed the history of Rome up to 171 BC in his epic Annals. . a year before his death. Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Epodes (41–31 BC): Sappho was the head of a thiasos (brotherhood) honoring Aphrodite and the nine muses. From the seven books of his collected poems, one complete poem and fragments of others survive today. Sophocles, Oedipus the King (c. 429–425 BC): This tragic play was considered by Aristotle to be the model of Greek tragedy.

Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War (c. 400 BC): This clinical account of the war between the Athenian Empire and the Spartan coalition (431–404 BC) was interrupted mid-sentence in 411, probably by the Intervention by Thucydides. Death. Titus Livy, History of Rome from its Foundation (c. 28 BC to AD 17): Composed in 142 books, the History of Livy is a monumental work covering the rise of Rome from its foundation to 9 a.m. C. when Emperor Augustus' stepson, Drusus, died. Only thirty-five books survive. Titus Lucretius Carus, The Nature of Things (65-55 BCE) - This unfinished epic poem put forward the theory that the universe is made up of atoms and emptiness and that therefore men and women need not fear death because it only a resolution of the universe is atoms that make up the human body and soul.

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MUSIC Nancy Sultan

IMPORTANT EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 GENERAL DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 TOPICS Musical Instruments . . . . Music in Greek Life. . . . musical education. . . . . . . Music in Roman Life. . . Women in early music theory. . . . . . . . .

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189 198 210 212 216 219

Aristoxenos means PEOPLE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pindar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Claudius Ptolemy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pythagoras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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228 229 230 230 231

DOCUMENTARY SOURCES. . . . . . . . . 231 SIDEBARS AND MAIN DOCUMENTS Primary sources are listed in italics

A strike of flutists in ancient Rome (Livy describes the inventive solution to a strike of Tibicina flutists). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Odysseus praises the song (in the Odyssey, Odysseus praises the songs of Demodocus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

The invention of the lyre (Hermes makes the lyre out of a tortoise shell). . . . . . . . . Saved by the Hymns of Euripides (Plutarch remembers how the songs of Euripides saved the Athenian captives). . . . . . . Orestes (The text by Euripides is one of the earliest examples of ancient Greek music). . . . . . Plato on musical innovation (Plato describes music conducive to moral education). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seikilos funerary stele (text on the tombstone contains compositional patterns described by later theorists). . . . . . . . . . Domitian and the Feast of Jupiter Capitolinus (Suetonius speaks of a music festival founded by Domitian). . . . . . . . . Only one of the girls (Plutarch describes Clodius' plan to put on a lyre.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Helen's Ritual Lament (Euripides portrays the musical power of the ritual lament). . Criticism of the harmonicoi (Aristoxenus argues that music must be judged empirically through the senses). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aristotle on Music (Aristotle analyzes the influence of music on the soul). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alypia notation tables (examples of Greek musical notation). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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w. 676 BC Music schools founded in Sparta –c. 673 BC by Terpander of Lesbos and Thaletas of Gortyn.

IMPORTANT EVENTS in music c. 2800 BC During the Aegean Bronze Age, Music – c. 1100 BC BC Cyanos and musical instruments are depicted in frescoes, on vases and seal stones, and in sculptures. Fragments of lyres, flutes, percussion instruments and merman horns have survived from this period. w. 2200 BC Cycladic figurines depict Bronze Age Aegean musicians holding harp, aulos (reed flutes) and syrinx (pan flutes). around 1490 BC A painted Bronze Age sarcophagus from Ayia Triada, Crete depicts musicians playing the phorminx (lyre) and aulos during a ritual sacrifice. around 1100 BC A miniature bronze votive zither from the sanctuary of Apollo at Amyklai (near Sparta) is the earliest representation of the type that became popular in the Classic period (480-323 BC). approx. 800 BC During the lower Archaic period, the –c. 700 BC The Homeric epics Iliad and Odyssey, the Homeric hymns and the poet Hesiod describe musicians, instruments and musical contexts. Phemios and Demodocus, two of Homer's aoidoi (professional bards), work in the palaces of Odysseus and Faiacos in the Odyssey. approx. 750 BC Greeks colonize southern and eastern Italy – c. 550 BC in Sicily; Musicians, poets and composers bring Greek musical culture to Syracuse and other cities in Magna Graecia. 182

Virtuoso composer and kitharode Terpander wins the music competition at Apollo's first Karneia Festival and four straight victories at the Pythian Games. w. 654 BC The lyric poet Alcman lives in Sparta and –c. 611 BC composes his Partheneia ("Dance of the Maiden"). The island of Lesvos becomes a second musical center. w. 628 B.C. Arion of Lesbos teaches Corinth –c. 625 BC Chr. Choirs for the performance of the dithyramb (male choir dance) invented by himself. It is from this type of dithyramb that the tragic chorus is said to have developed. w. 612 B.C. The most famous poet, Sappho, was born on Lesvos. In her hometown of Mytilene, she composes lyrical songs, mostly monodies and choral dances, and leads a circle of girls and young women; Barbitos (a low-pitched lyre) and other instruments accompany the music. w. 632 B.C. The composer Stesichorus (née Teisias) –c. 556 BC BC sets the first tragic refrain and is known for using the harmateios nomos ("chariot melody") and the nomos of Athena in the Phrygian mode, which tells the story of the birth of Athena in the full armor of Zeus. w. 625 BC The dithyramb (male choral dance) is -c. 585 BC Invented by Kitharode Arion of Lesbos during the time of the tyrant Periander in Corinth. w. 600 BC tyrants reform festivals and lures –c. 500 BC talented musicians to their cities: in Corinth, Periander supports Arion, who creates the dithyramb; in Sicyon, Cleisthenes puts an end to rhapsodic performances and opens the way to classical tragedy; and Pisistratus introduces the festival of the Dionysian city in Athens,

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a central feature of this is the dithyrambic, tragic and comic arguments. Thespis produces the first tragedy in Athens by adding a speaker to interact with the chorus. Under Hipparchus, son of Pisistratus, the poets Anacreon, Laso de Hermine and Simonides experienced their heyday. Hipparchus develops the competence of the rhapsodes in the Great Panathenae in an organized serial performance of the entire Iliad and Odyssey. 586 BC New contests of Aulodes and Auletes are added in the Pythian games. Aulode Echembrotus of Arcadia gains a three-legged cauldron of bronze. The aulete (pipe player) Sakadas of Argos wins a prize in the Pythian Games music competition. He will win prizes in the next two games and will be known for his Pythikos nomos ("Pythian Composition"), in which he depicts Apollo's victory over the Python at Delphi. Argos becomes a center of musical excellence. 574 BC Pythocritus of Sicyon defeats six Pythians -554 BC wins over the aulos. approx. 560 BC The philosopher, mathematician and scientist Pythagoras is born. He later founded a school in Croton, where he and his followers studied acoustic and musical phenomena. 566 BC The Panathenaea festival in Athens is reorganized on a larger scale and includes music competitions for rhapsodes, zithers, aulodes and auleta. 558 BC The unaccompanied zither performance is added to the Pythian music competition. Agelon of Tegea is the first winner. approx. 520 BC The pre-c. by the East Greek poet Anacreon. 460 BC The dance in Athens gives rise to a series of vase paintings depicting Ionian influence

in Athenian music. In one image, a singer holds a barbito (Ionian-style lyre) named Anacreon. 518 BC The poet Pindar, the most famous of all the lyric poets of ancient Greece, was born near Thebes in Boeotia (died 438). He is best known for his Epinician odes, composed to the victors of the four athletic games: Pythian, Nemean, Istmian and Olympic. w. 508 B.C. BC Lasus presents the dithyrambic competition in Athens. approx. 500 BC BC Democratic Athens is the center of everything –c. 400 BC BC Spiritual and cultural activity in Greece. In this city the tragic Aeschylus, Phrinicus, Sophocles, Euripides and Agatho produced their dramas in the Theater of Dionysus during the Dionysian city; the comic dramatist Aristophanes satirizes the politics and culture of Athens; and the poets Laso, Simonides, Bacchylides, Pindar, Melanipides, Timoteo, Philoxenus and Cinesias compose dithyrambs for Athenian choirs and the so-called 'New Music'. 478 BC BC Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse in Sicily, –467 BC makes his city a haven for artists, poets and musicians from all over Greece. His hospitality to Pindar is so appreciated that the poet wrote a eulogy for him. w. 475 BC The Athenian statesman Themistocles commissioned the western world's first concert hall, the Odeion, for the musical competitions held during the Great Panatena. It's in the Athens market. 474 BC CE Hiero defeats the Etruscans at Cumae and begins his reign at Syracuse, during which time he entertains Aeschylus, Pindar, and other Greek artists and musicians. w. 470 BC The Etruscans built the so-called "Tomb of the Leopards" and "Tomb of the Triclinium" in Tarquinia, in northern Italy, and painted the walls with a

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Funeral banquet scene with men and women dancing to the strains of aulos (reed flutes) and a six-stringed chelys (turtle shell) lyre. w. 450 BC Various forms of the harp appear in Athenian vase paintings, although before this time it was a familiar instrument for Anacreon. w. 435 BC The famous dithyrambic Philoxenus of Cythera is born. His most famous work will be The Cyclops (also called Polyphemus and Galatea). 443 BC Chr. Damon, one of the greatest intellectuals of –c. 430 BC In his time he publishes an essay arguing that musical modes and rhythms are closely related to ethical qualities and that the state should be concerned with the regulation of music and music education. His ideas influence Plato's and Aristotle's approach to the ethos of music in their discussion of music education. w. 427 B.C. The philosopher Plato is born. He will speak about the character and role of music in many of his works, particularly Timaeus, Republic and Laws. w. 420 BC The musician Timothy of Miletus defeats his teacher, the eminent Phrynis, in a music competition. Several hundred verses of his Persian kitarodic composition survive, along with an epilogue with prayers to Apollo and a manifesto praising his own talent and originality. 416 BC The playwright and composer Agathon wins first place in the dramatic competition at the Lenaea in Athens. It is later satirized by Aristophanes in his Thesmophoriazousae, but treated with great affection in Plato's Symposium. 410 BC The ingenious kitarist Stratonicus of Athens –360 BC. He is active, along with several other virtuoso performers whose charisma captivates audiences, including Chrysogonus, hired to helm the crew of the naval general Alcibiades; 184

the Pronomus aulete from Thebes, displayed on a vase (in the Museo Nazionale in Naples), appearing before a crowd of actors, dressed in an ornate tunic and with a garland on her head; and Antigeneidas, another aulet from Thebes, described by the writer Apuleius as "a honeyed melodyr of every word and a skilled performer in every respect" (Flor. 4). 402 BC BC Kitharodes, most popular with the masses, wins top prizes in major competitions; The list of prizes includes: a gold crown of 85 drachma, a silver crown of 1,000 drachma and 500 drachma in cash; other kitharode prizes are worth 700, 600, 400 and 300 drachmas respectively. There are two prizes for aulodes (300 and 100 drachmas) and three for kitarists. w. 400 BC The Five Day Marriage of Alexander the Great – c. 300 BC The celebration at Susa is entertained by a rhapsode, three psilocitharists, two kitharodes, two aulodes, five auletes (playing the Terpandrean Pythikos Nomos) and later accompanied choirs, three tragic and three comic actors, and a harpist. 392 BC Aristophanes produces his last survivor: 388 BC. the comedies Ecclesiazusae (Women in Congregation) and Plutus (Wealth), in which the chorus was greatly reduced and no longer written by the playwright; The word “KHOROU” (“choral interlude”) appears in place of choral letters. The solo voice and the flute remain central musical elements in the work. 343 BC Aristotle discusses the character and purpose of music in his book Politics and Problems. The music theorist Aristoxenus becomes one of his best students. w. 333 BC Aristoxenus was a student of Aristotle in Athens and wrote many books and papers, the most influential being Harmonika stoikheia (Harmonious Elements) and Rhythmika stoikheia (Rhythmic Elements).

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319 BC The children's choir of the Cecropid tribe wins the dithyrambic competition in the Great Dionysus in Athens with a performance of Timotheus Elpenor's composition. 316 BC Chr. Dyskolos (Mürrer), the only surviving complete work by the comic author Menander, is produced; contains four chorale interludes, identified by the word "KHOROU" between the five acts. In line 879, a stage direction "aulosplayer plays" and a change in tempo indicate additional musical content. 311 BC The Roman censor Appius Claudius Caecus revokes the Etruscan artists' guild (Collegium) the right to dine at public expense in the Temple of Jupiter after performing at religious festivals; They protest by marching from Rome to Tibur (18 miles away) and eventually get their free dinners back. w. 300 BC BC New dramatic and musical competition. 200 BC The Nemea and Isthmus games are added. Kitharode Nicocles of Taranto records his victories at the Pythian and Istmian Games, the Great Panathenaea, the Lenaea (in a dithyramb), the Hecatomboia, the Helieia, and the royal feasts in Macedonia and Alexandria. Artists gathered in various cities of Greece, Alexandria and Sicily to set up professional organizations known as technitai Dionysou (Artists of Dionysos), forming guilds (koina or later synodoi). They place musicians, composers, conductors and teachers for church festivals and secular events. 290 BC The Technitai ("Artists' Guild") is founded in -280 Athens to hold concerts in various cities. Rival Isthmian-Nemean guild settles in north-eastern Peloponnese; both establish relationships with Delphi. w. 270 BC Ctesibios of Alexandria invents the pneumatic pump and the water organ (from the Greek hydraulis).

235 BC A significant artists' guild is formed in Teos, serving Ionia and the Hellespont. 211 BC The Isthmian-Nemean guild is invited to participate in various festivals, including the Festival of the Muses in Thespia, in Thebes, on the island of Delos and around the Peloponnese. 205 BC BC Kitharode Pylades of Megalopolis plays Timothy's Persians in the Nemean games. w. 200 BC Chr. New music is played together with re-c. 100 B.C. applause of old standards and selections of tragic poets of the 5th century, especially Euripides. approx. 194 BC BC Satyr of Samos, a famous Auletete, wins the prize and offers an encore from Euripides' tragedy Bacchae. 191 BC Plautus produces his comedy Pseudolus (A Trapaça) which, like many of his other works, integrates polymetric chants (solo songs) accompanied by various types of shins (reed pipes) and instrumental flute music, along with musical interludes. scenes. . 170 BC 150 BC Menekles sent by Teos, about 150 BC form works of Timothy and Polyid at Knossos and Priansos, Crete. 163 BC Terence produces his comedy Heautotontimorumenos (The Tormentor), the structure of which depends entirely on the musical accompaniment of a tibicen (reed pipe). 127 BC Members of the Athenian guild decreased from 97 BC. part. ipate on the religious pilgrimage of the Pythaids from Athens to Delphi. The group consists of epic and dramatic poets, rhapsodes, actors, instrumentalists, singers, and a large choir singing the hymn to Apollo; The famous hymn music composed for the occasion by the kitarist Limenius and the singer Athenaeus is engraved on the wall of the Treasury of the Athenians.

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118 BC The Delphians honor two Arcadian musicians who trained children's choirs to perform excerpts from the 'Ancient Poets'. 90 BC A Cretan organist named Antipatros impresses his audience at Delphi; He receives prizes at the Pythian Games and receives civic honors for himself and his descendants. w. 27 v. The Roman architect Vitruvius dies. In the fifth book of his De architectura he discusses acoustics in relation to the design of theater halls and translates the works of the Greek music theorist Aristoxenus into Latin in order to explain the system of harmony (tetrachord system) to his Roman readers. 26 B.C. Virgil composes his epic for Augustus, -19 BC. the Aeneid, in which he describes a Phrygian type of aulos and other musical instruments and contexts. 22 B.C. BC Pilas of Cilicia introduces pantomime to Rome, consisting of enactments of scenes from myth and history performed by solo dancers; the musical accompaniment is provided by a choir and an orchestra of flutes, lyres and percussion instruments. 17 B.C. BC Carmen Saeculare by the Latin poet Horace is performed by a choir of 27 girls and 27 boys; Commissioned by Emperor Augustus for the Centenary Games in Rome, it is the only known poem by Horace that was set to music. AD 54. A seventeen-year-old art lover who sings, acts, and plays the zither and organ, Nero becomes Emperor of Rome. AD 79. Mount Vesuvius erupts, burying Pompeii and Herculaneum, surviving a number of frescoes depicting music scenes. ca. 100 AD The Roman orator Quintilian dies. In his work Institutio oratoria he analyses

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Music as part of his guide on how to properly train a speaker. 117 AD Hadrian becomes emperor of Rome after Trajan's death. A highly cultured man, heavily influenced by Greek ideals, he employed a Cretan kitharode named Mesomedes to compose hymns; Several fragments with musical notation survive in medieval manuscripts. ca. 127 AD The astronomer and mathematician Claudius –148 AD Ptolemy writes in Alexandria. Among his many books is Harmonika, a systematic treatise on mathematical harmony. ca. 200 AD gladiator fight with escort –c. 300 CE of an organist, trumpeter and horns. The organ is also used at religious festivals. c.250 CE Two important music theorists are –c. AD 350 publication of his works: Aristides Quintilianus, De musica (Greek title perimousikes); and Gaudentius, Harmonica introductio (from Greek harmonica eisagoge). c. AD 300 Alypius, a younger contemporary of Aristides Quintilianus, compiles his Introductio musica, which contains the most complete record of notational symbols. 384 AD Emperor Carino organizes a concert in Rome with a hundred trumpeters, a hundred trumpeters and two hundred tibicens (flutists). AD 387 Augustine, Latin philosopher and respected father of the Church, writes De musica in which he analyzes meter and verse. Ten years later, in his autobiographical Confessions (397-400), he reflects on the ethics of sacred music and asks whether the faithful should be moved by singing or by the song itself.

Arts and Humanities Through the Ages: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 BC – AD 476)

Music OVERVIEW THE ROOTS OF WESTERN MUSIC. The modern word "music" and indeed most of the terms and concepts associated with music (e.g. melody, harmony, symphony, orchestra, chorus, ode, hymn, anthem and rhythm) are Greek. Western music has its roots in the Greek concept of mousike techne, "the craft of the muses". The term mousike refers to poetry and dance as much as it does to music, hence all three are linked in Greek culture. Although the Greeks themselves were influenced by the musical traditions of the Middle East, Anatolia, and Egypt, it was the Greek poets, philosophers, and theorists whose musical compositions had the most profound impact on later cultures; The Romans followed the example of the Greeks, as did the early Christians. AN ESSENTIAL PART OF ANCIENT LIFE. Art and archaeological evidence, literature, theoretical writings and some surviving fragments of musical compositions show that music was an integral part of public, private, sacred and secular life in ancient Greece and Rome. Choral singing and dancing, theatrical and solo performances and music competitions filled the calendar year. Ordinary men and women sang while going about their daily chores like weaving, making wine, or harvesting grain; Bards and professional virtuosos made their living performing at parties for small groups as well as at festivals to large audiences. Music wasn't just for entertainment, however. Because of its association with the gods, chiefly the muses, goddesses who, according to the archaic Greek poets Homer and Hesiod, legitimize and confirm the truth of the myths, the music itself was considered divine; played a central role in Greek and Roman religion, which can best be described as polytheistic, using a combination of myth (sacred narratives) and ceremonial rituals. Music was an integral part of all major ceremonial initiation rites in Greek and Roman culture: birth, coming of age, marriage, death, and burial. EARLY DEVELOPMENT. Music has been a very important part of social and religious life since prehistoric times.

Greece. Already in the third millennium B.C. C. Musicians playing instruments such as the harp, the aulos (double reed flute) and the syrinx (a type of flute) are depicted in art, mainly on marble and ivory figures found in tombs. . By the second millennium, known as the Mycenaean period, many of the instruments that would later become popular in Greek and Roman history—the forminx (lyre), the sistrum (rattle), and the triton (trumpet)—had already appeared. . Singers and musical instruments appear in the two most important poems of the 8th century BC. BC, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. These heroic epics provided the musical link between the Mycenaean and Archaic periods of Greece for the professional bards described in the poems, which are still sung to the accompaniment of the phorminx. A century later, the lyric poets Terpander and Archilochus sang Homeric poems on a more elaborate lyre, the kithara, and other soloists, the rhapsodoi, recited the poems at feasts without musical accompaniment. MUSICAL EDUCATION. Music instruction was considered essential for civilized people by Greek and Roman writers, as were mathematics and athletics. It is said that the first schools of music appeared between the 8th and 7th centuries BC. in the city of Sparta in southern Greece. the musicians Terpander from Lesbos, Thaletas from Gortyn and Sacadas from Argos. Terpander, perhaps the most famous kitharode (kithara player), organized and won the first major music competition in Sparta; He is one of the earliest known music teachers, who is also credited with adding strings to the sitar, composing and refining compositional and performance techniques for a variety of instruments. He is also said to have invented the categories of nomoi (songs, melodies, laws, customs), used by poets to classify the types of songs in a singer's repertoire and to refer to specific melodic compositions, be it for a specific one instrument (kitarodic), a composer (the terpandrean), or even a deity. The word nomos was originally used to refer to unique tunes or types of tunes associated with a specific region or people; Each nomos thus retained unique properties. MUSIC CENTERS. Between the 7th and 6th centuries B.C. In the 4th century BC, the island of Lesvos, off the coast of ancient Asia Minor (present-day Turkey), became another center of music and poetry in Greece. Lesbian poets, especially Alkaios and Sappho, were influenced by the melodic forms of Lydia and Phrygia in the east, and their musical compositions had an oriental flavor. Along with the dithyramb, a ritual choral dance in honor of Dionysus, a virtuoso soloist and

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the accompaniment of songs or recitations became increasingly popular. In the 5th century B.C. C. the democratic city of Athens had become the most powerful polis (city-state) of Greece and the center of Greek cultural and intellectual life. During the Classic period (480-323 BC) of Greek history, competitions were part of the Olympian, Nemean, Pythian (at Delphi) and Isthmian (near Corinth) festivals, and poets, including the famous poet Pindar, composed Epinikia for the victors such - elaborate lyrical poems of praise - sung by a choir with musical accompaniment. The playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides staged their dramas or tragoidia (tragedies) in the Amphitheater of Dionysus at the foot of the Acropolis as part of the Festival of the City of Dionysus. Music, particularly dance and choral music, played a central role in the Greek theatrical tradition, which included comedy and 'satire plays' (satire) alongside tragedy; In fact, the words for "tragedy" and "comedy" (tragoidos and komoidos) contain the word for "song", oidos. INNOVATIONS. In the fourth and third centuries B.C. New types of musical genres and innovations continued to emerge throughout the 19th century. Performances by virtuoso soloists (rhapsodoi and tragodoi) singing or reciting Homeric epics, lyrical or dramatic poetry, often with musical accompaniment from a band, were particularly popular. Perhaps the most important contribution to music in the late 3rd century was the invention of the hydraulis (water organ) by the engineer Ktesibios. Originally intended as a mechanical water pump, the hydraulis became a popular musical instrument in Rome and later in the Christian church. The modern pipe organ is derived from this first mechanical-hydraulic machine. ROMAN MUSIC. The Romans, always practical, were not very original when it came to music. In addition to some native Etruscan ritual songs and musical instruments, the Romans generally looked to the Greeks for guidance and inspiration. It is safe to say that once Greece in the 3rd century B.C. becomes part of the Roman Empire. Roman musical instruments such as the folk tibia (a version of the Greek aulos), the fistula (panpipe), and even the true flute were variations on Greek instrument types. The Greek zither remained the most popular instrument in Rome and continued to grow in size. As in Greece, military music played a central role in Roman life. A variety of wind instruments played in marching bands: kerata (cow horns), salpinges (ivory or bronze trumpets), cornu (round horn), and tuba (tin blowpipe). Although the Romans adopted Greek forms from 188 and later adapted them

epic, lyrical, tragic and comic, very little is known about the role of the music played in their versions. The comedies of Plautus and Terence in the second century BC. contained a spoken rather than a sung version of the Greek chorus and included the canticle, a scene performed in the form of a shin-accompanied chant. Pantomime and pantomime were popular in Roman times around the 1st century BC. invented and added to the repertoire around 300 BC, and the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius improved the acoustics of theaters with his theory of sound waves. MUSIC AND PHILOSOPHY. Hero and god myths of the Greek and Roman religion contained not only songs and musical competitions, but also explained the origin of certain melodies, rhythms and instruments. The Greeks and Romans believed that music had an impact on moral behavior, and writings from the period reflect a concern that certain types of music could mislead young people. The gods Apollo and Dionysus (Roman Bacchus) represented complementary aspects of the human psyche and were therefore particularly important in the philosophy of music education. Early Greek philosophers and theorists, notably Damon, Plato, and Aristotle, carefully examined the aesthetic, ethical, and moral qualities of different types of melody and rhythm. The mathematician Pythagoras (c. 560–470 BC), who also studied melody and rhythm, is said to have invented what is now known as the “acoustic theory” by teaching that the same numerical laws that governed the universe also governed music reigned. extension, the soul. MUSICAL COMPOSITION. Greek and Roman literature and art contain numerous references to music, musicians and forms of music. Between 23 and 51 actually notated musical compositions survive, depending on the definition of "composition". They exist on papyrus, in stone, and in manuscripts. Many are fragmentary and most date from relatively late periods between the 3rd century B.C. and the 4th century AD The texts include hymns and songs to the deities, verses of poetry and drama, and choral songs. It is difficult, but not impossible, to read these compositions. Sometime in the 5th century B.C. By 300 BC the Greeks developed the science of acoustic theory, the tetrachord scale system, and musical terminology, which served as the basis for the composition, performance, and study of music in later periods. Although very little of what modern scholars would call "music theory" survives, some theoretical work helps interpret the surviving fragments. These theoretical treatises and manuals cover a period of about 800 years, from the earliest, Aristotle-

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enus (c. 375–320 BC) - to the last - Alypius (c. 450 AD). These works explain and describe musical systems, melodic genres, moods, keys (scales), and rhythms, and discuss various philosophical issues in music, such as ethics and the proper use of music in education. The application of these to composition and performance may be unclear, but the surviving early theory (particularly the Aristoxenic tradition) does a remarkable job of constructing discrete categories to dissect the phenomena of music, categories that are still used to some extent become. in modern musical analysis.

provide a reliable if imperfect understanding of music in Greek and Roman life. Musicologists have used the tables of Alypius and other theorists to transcribe surviving compositions into Western notation; Ethnographers and acousticians have reconstructed instruments based on surviving artifacts, descriptions in literature, and imagery in art; Recordings of extant compositions were made with these instruments, all in an attempt to recreate the sound of Greek and Roman music.

MUSIC NOTES. Ancient Greek and Roman music was composed and transmitted acoustically without the need for writing, but by the mid-3rd century B.C. A standard alphabetical form of music notation has been used to a limited extent. In surviving musical examples, these notation symbols are placed above the words of the song, presumably to indicate the melody, but are sometimes inserted between passages of text to indicate a passage on instruments. There are also some annotated passages without text. The most modern knowledge of notation is found in the tables of Alypius, a music theorist of the late fourth or fifth century AD, who wrote down the names of all the notes and notation symbols for the two-octave scale, or "Grand Perfect System". ' in fifteen tonoi ('keys'). The notation was clearly used only by professionals. Even in later times, music was mainly an oral tradition, passed on from grandparents to children, from teacher to student. Just as Gregorian chant derived from an oral tradition and was cultivated primarily in the Middle Ages, Greek and Roman music thrived for centuries without the aid of written notation or theory.

SUBJECTS

CONNECTION WITH POETRY. Ancient Greek music was mostly monophonic: melody without harmony or counterpoint. In the 7th century B.C. Composers like Archilochus used heterophony (embellishment of instruments or singers), modulation, mixed rhythms, and the combination of text with music. It is likely that the music was improvised and not entirely composed. The Greeks used the word melos for a simple "song", vocal or instrumental, while the Romans used carmine; In its 'perfect form', Teleion Melos, ancient Greek and Roman music, has always been associated with poetry and dance. The melody and rhythm of the music were closely related to the rhythm of poetic meter. UNDERSTANDING EVI SURVIVAL MUSIC Combined theoretical writings, literary and artistic representations and archaeological evidence

DANZA.

in music VOICE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. The human voice was the first and most important musical instrument in Greek and Roman life. The common people sang while plowing fields, harvesting grain, processing wool, making wine and caring for children. There were drunken songs, hymns to gods and heroes, lamentations and wedding songs. Winners of sports games received a song of praise; Hymns rallied troops for battle. The singers competed for prizes in solo and choral singing. One of the earliest depictions of the song is found on a black soapstone vase from Crete's Bronze Age, dating to the second millennium BC. is dated. C.: A group of three singers marches with heads thrown back and mouths open singing along with a group of reapers; a sistrum player (shaker) keeps the beat. The earliest surviving reference to singing in literature comes from The Odyssey, where the goddess Circe sang in a sweet voice while she worked at her loom. Singers were often depicted in Greek vase paintings of the 6th century BC. depicted; Some paintings represent the sound coming out of the mouth in the form of small "o's". Epic poetry was sung or recited, often accompanied by musical instruments, and the few surviving examples of written music show that sung poetry was important enough to be written even when the piece was for a solo instrument. Language itself also glorified the voice as an important instrument. In his work De Anima, the philosopher Aristotle distinguished phone ('voice') from psophos ('sound'), noting that only animals with a soul have a true voice. The Greek adjective ligys or ligyros was most commonly applied to the voice when it was melodious, clean, and pure, like a nightingale. STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. Chordophones (stringed instruments) were the most basic and arguably the most important

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Drawing of a figure playing the lyre.

CREATED BY CECILY EVANS.

THE GALE GROUP.

Musical instruments in ancient Greece. These included four types of lyre, various harps, psalteries (zithers), and after the fourth century B.C. a lute-like instrument called pandouros. The Romans favored wind instruments, but the lyre emerged in Etruscan art and remained popular with soloists throughout the Roman period. Ancient scholars and lexicographers such as Pollux and Athenaeus (2nd century AD) listed and discussed the different types of lyre and harp, providing important information about their construction, tuning and use. In music pedagogy, Plato, Aristotle, and later music theorists advocated the use of simple, traditional melodies on the lyre. THE LIRA. Musicians used the lyre to accompany the singing of sacred hymns and epic and lyrical poetry, and it became the instrument of choice for virtuoso soloists. People of all ages played the lyre for their own amusement, in musical competitions, at ritual ceremonies such as weddings and funerals, and at festivals and festivals. In Greek myth, the lyre was also 190

associated with the Muses, Hermes, Apollo, Dionysus and Orpheus. According to the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, the god Hermes fashioned the first lyre from the shell of a Chelys (tortoise). Archeology shows that the first lyres date back to the 3rd millennium BC. in ancient Palestine and Sumer, probably entering Greece during the Bronze Age through trade with the Mycenaeans. The earliest depictions of the Greek lyre in action come from Mycenaean Greek settlements of the second millennium, where archaeologists have found frescoes and sculptures depicting female lyre players and round dances. Lyre players appear on Mycenaean engraved rings and seals. The Greek word for "lyre", lura, refers to the family of chordophones with strings of equal length. There are four main types of lyre: chelys, barbitos, phorminx, and kithara, each with their own shape, size, mood, and social function. The basic construction consisted of a sound box (turtle shell or wood) to which arms and a crossbar were attached; The gut strings were knotted to the cordotonon (a small plate on the underside of the soundboard), threaded over the bridge and attached to the crossbar at the top of the instrument. The number of strings varied from five to nine, with seven being the norm since the Archaic period. The player can stand, sit, or walk while using a plectrum (plectrum) to pluck or strum the strings. A lyre handle helped the musician hold the instrument to his chest. TYPES OF LIRES. Chelys and Barbites were small and light; its bowl-shaped soundboards didn't amplify the sound very loudly. They were played by amateur musicians, used for music lessons, and favored by lyricists like Safo for small group performances indoors. Although antiquity attributes the invention of the beard to the Greek musician and poet Terpander, it is not a Greek word and probably came to Greece from Asia Minor. The most accomplished musicians wanted larger wooden lyres: the phorminx and the kithara. There is ample literary and artistic evidence that these were more professional instruments. In Homer's Odyssey, two aoidoi (professional bards) named Demodocos and Phemios perform songs from the epic cycle to accompany the phorminx to an audience eager to applaud "that song which circulates last among men". In the Iliad, the Achaean wrestler Achilles sat in his tent and sang "The Glory of Heroes" while playing a beautiful forminx, "made by an artist, with a bridge of silver, and a beautiful clear tone" (9.185-188). Vase paintings often showed the phorminx with a decorative eye.

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Drawing of a figure playing the zither.

CREATED BY CECILY

Drawing of a character touching Barbitas.

CREATED BY CECILY

EVANS. THE GALE GROUP.

on the soundboard, a feature that has always distinguished it from its close relative, the kithara. In the classical period (480-323 BC) forming was primarily associated with the worship of Dionysus, and the zither increasingly became the instrument of choice for competitions and virtuoso performances; can be combined with the aulos (double reed flute) when playing together. Its large wooden sound box gave the zither a powerful sound that made it suitable for playing outdoors, for example during the Panathenaia (Athens' national festival) in Athens; The frieze of the Parthenon Temple depicts two elegantly dressed kitharodes (kithara players) marching in the Panathenaic procession.

Theus claimed to have invented "meters and rhythms of eleven beats"; This could mean that he added strings to embellish a song's melody with intricate rhythmic ornamentation. However, fame had its downside; The great zithers were sometimes satirized in Athenian comedies. Two famous Kitharodes in Greek mythology are Orpheus and Thamyris, both from Thrace. Orpheus is even said to charm rocks with his playing, and Thamyris boasted of playing better than the muses. Both died violently, but were made good with an afterlife cult. Orpheus received the gift of prophecy, while a special type of zither was called the thamyris.

CITARODS. The names of several famous Greek kitharodes are known. Terpander was one of the first and best-known composers and players of the instrument in the Archaic period, while Philoxenus of Cythera and Timothy of Miletus were the most famous of the Classic period (480-323 BC). Thymus-

THE HARP. The harp, an instrument used in the fourth millennium BC by the Sumerians and Egyptians. CE, first appeared in the Greek world during the Bronze Age, about a thousand years later; Several marble figures from tombs in the Cyclades show the triangular harp in the arms of seated musicians; No string is specified in the

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Detail of an Apulian red-figure vase from southern Italy showing Apollo playing the zither. THE ART ARCHIVE/LIBRARY DES ARTS DÉCORATIFS PARIS/DAGLI ORTI.

statues, but a contemporary stamp shows four. Later versions had twenty to forty strings and were therefore referred to as "many-stringed" instruments. Harps vary in size and come in three basic shapes: domed, triangular, and C-shaped. Among the many names for the instrument are: pektis, trigonon, psalterion, magadis, and sambyke. The harp falls into the psaltery category as it was typically played with the fingers of both hands without the aid of a plectrum (plectrum). The structure was made of wood and at the base was a sound box. Strings of unequal length were stretched from the base to the top of the harp, following the curvature of the frame, and pegs were at the base or at the top, depending on the type of harp. Greek Bronze Age harpist figures were all male, but by the 5th century B.C. Harps, particularly the trigonon, sambyke, pektis, and magadis, were often referred to as female instruments; They were depicted on painted vessels, performed exclusively by women, usually in connection with a wedding or symposium (male drinking bouts) along with aulos and chelys. Since it was primarily associated with female entertainment and was particularly sensual or erotic, Plato did not consider the harp as such

Drawing of a figure playing the lute.

CREATED BY CECILY EVANS.

THE GALE GROUP.

a suitable tool for educational purposes. Professional harpists, known as psaltriai or sambykai, shocked conservative Romans when they first played there. THE FIGHT. The use of the lute was limited in Greece and Rome, although the instrument was used as early as the third millennium BC. in Mesopotamia. C., and shortly thereafter in Egypt. The name pandouros ("lute") may derive from the Sumerian pan-tur ("little bow"). In both Egypt and the Mediterranean, the lute was another instrument played primarily by women. It is in Greece before the Alexandrian period, in the mid-4th century BC. unknown when pandouros appear on the arms of a group of female terracotta figures. The instrument is also held by one of the muses on a well-known pedestal relief in a temple dedicated to the goddess Leto, built in the same century. The 4th-century comic poet Anaxilas alludes to a lute in his work The Lyre-Maker. The instrument, which resembles a small guitar or banjo, may have arrived in Greece.

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Cycladic Greek marble figure of a harpist from 2500 BC.

ART ARCHIVES/NATIONAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM OF ATHENS/DAGLI ORTI.

Drawing of a figure playing the harp.

during Alexander the Great's campaigns in Persia. Made of wood, pandouros consisted of a pear-shaped or triangular soundboard from which protruded an arm with frets of varying lengths. A rope around the shoulders served as a lute handle. Gut strings were stretched from the bottom of the soundboard to the tuning pegs in the head. Players could sit or stand and strum with their right hand while fretted with their left. The number of strands ranged from one to four. The theorist Pollux included the pandouros with the trichord ("three-stringed") lyres, and it is likely that the Pythagoreans also used this very simple accordion for acoustic research. WINDS. Wind instruments (reeds, flutes, horns, and flutes) were important in Greek and Roman music from earliest times, particularly the double-reed instrument known as the aulos. In fact, the aulos appears more frequently on vases and frescoes than any other instrument, although Plato and Aristotle considered the instrument unsuitable for education. Wind instruments were used in different contexts: salpinges ("tin trumpets") and kerata.

CREATED BY CECILY EVANS.

THE GALE GROUP.

("Horns") accompanied military processions and public spectacles. The Roman cavalry thundered to the sound of the lituus ("trumpet"); Brass sets included the cornu ("horn") and the conch ("tuba"). Triton bowls were used as trumpets (or perhaps megaphones) by common people and children; They were often imitated in stone or clay. The aulos were used to accompany small and large groups of singers at festivals, banquets and religious festivals and could be played while dancing. The aulos was fundamental during the ecstatic worship of the gods Dionysus (Roman Bacchus) and Cybele; He is often represented by satyrs and sileni (over-excited forest animals associated with the ecstatic cult of Dionysus), and Aristotle commented that Aulos could inspire wild and dangerous passions. Panpipes (Greek syringes, Roman fistulas) were played by shepherds and shepherds. Along with iconographic and literary evidence, archaeologists have recovered large numbers of actual wind instruments, giving scholars a good idea of how many of them were made, tuned, and played.

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THE CLASSES. The aulos was not a flute, but a single or double-reed instrument, comparable to the oboe. Thinner than an oboe and often much longer, the aulos was usually played in pairs, one in each hand. It usually consisted of five parts: the glotte (mouthpiece), which housed a reed made of different materials; a tripartite resonator consisting of two bulbous or oval resonators called holmos and hupholmion; the bombyx (main resonator), built in sections; and the trupemata (finger holes). The whistle can be made of cane, ivory, bone, wood or metal and can be straight or have a curved bell. In vase paintings from the 6th century B.C. The instrument was often seen with a phobeia ("goat") strapped to the musician's face. The aulos (plural, auloi) was carried in a sybene ("bag") and the reed in a glottokomeion ("reed carrier") when not in use. In the classical period (480-323 BC) the aulos typically had five finger holes, one at the bottom of the thumb tube. In later Greek and Roman auloi, the holes could be covered with rotating bands. The theorist Aristoxenus listed five sizes of auloi from highest to lowest: parthenikoi ("for girls", soprano), paidikoi ("for boys", treble), kitharisterioi ("for lyre players", tenor), teleioi ("for lyre players ") , tenor), full", baritone) and hyperteleioi ("fuller", bass), with their own peculiarities. The Greeks wished to claim the aulos as their own instrument and not as a foreign import, hence some myths attribute to Athena the created the aulos, or his music, while other stories state that a virtuoso musician named Pronomos of Thebes (late 5th century BC) invented the two-pipe arrangement in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC and in early Aegean art (Bronze Age 2200 BC) Myth and history intertwine around the invention of the aulos Two Greek myths, often retold as late as the 5th century BC, describe the invention of the instrument to the Phrygian satyr Marsyas or the goddess Athena. Pollux locates the origin of the aulos in Phrygia, noting that there was a Phrygian type of aulos, the Elymos aulos, used in celebration of the Phrygian goddess Cybele. Plutarch (1st century AD) related a famous and often illustrated Greek myth of the Phrygian satyr Marsyas, whose father Hyagnis is said to have invented both the aulos and the first melody for him: "The Great 194

Mother Song of Aulos” (a reference to the goddess Cybeles). Hyagnis taught the tune to her mischievous son, who in turn taught it to a certain real musician named Olympos. Pindar (5th century BC), in his twelfth Pythian ode, claimed that Athena created the Pamphonon Melos ("Rumbling Song") of the Aulos "to imitate the shrill cry of the Gorgons". In his book On Self-Confidence Anger, Plutarch gives another account of the story in which Marsyas, seeing Athena playing the aulos, made fun of how his cheeks swelled up when he played notes; Ashamed, the goddess threw the instrument away. Marsyas then invented the phobeia ("cheek butts") to control mouth and cheek movements. In another version, Athena, disgusted with the aulos, passed the instrument on to Apollo. THE CLASSES IN PERFORMANCE. Numerous artistic and literary references show the use of aulos. On the famous Bronze Age painted sarcophagus from Ayia Triada, Crete (ca. 1490 BC), a male aulet plays during the sacrifice of an animal; a phorminx player acts on the opposite side. Auloi is paired again with the phorminx in the Odyssey on Achilles' Shield, accompanying the dance at a wedding. The aulos was often played in conjunction with lyres and harps. He accompanied dithyramb (choral dance) and most other types of lyrical and choral performances. The aulos was considered for both happy and sad occasions and was played at funerals. Auloi were the instruments that accompanied the dance and music during the ecstatic Eastern worship of Dionysus, Cybele, and Orpheus. Aulet prostitutes entertained men at drinking bouts, and the instrument is often depicted in erotic scenes on vase paintings. THE SOUND OF CLASSES. There were three basic modal systems, or scales, associated with the aulos: Doric, Lydian, and Phrygian, but several dozen types have been classified by pitch range. Talented musicians could play an impressive variety of scales and keys using techniques such as half hole, cross fingering and overblowing; By playing two auloi simultaneously, the aulet could combine scales. Different pitches and timbres were also achieved by adjusting the reed and lug (position of the lip) on the mouthpiece. Various authors have described the sound of the aulos as shrill, buzzing, breathing sweetly, pure, moaning, seductive, orgiastic and plaintive. Plato and Aristotle regarded complex melodies using more than one mode or scale as disturbing to the soul; Plato banned the aulos from his ideal city in the Republic because it was a "panharmonic" instrument. THE ROMAN TIBIA. The Roman tibia (plural tibiae) was a whistle made of reeds or bone, the equivalent of the Greek auto-

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O. The Roman writer Varro said of the tibia what the Greek philosophers did of the aulos: its tones are complex and could have an ecstatic effect on the soul. As in Greece, the reed flute was played during the worship of deities such as Cybele, Bacchus (Greek Dionysus), and Isis, all associated with fertility, fertility, and rebirth. The shin was also used to accompany various types of solo performances such as pantomime, pantomime and farce, often in conjunction with lyres and percussion. Only tibicen ("shin players") performed tragedies, and according to Cicero, audiences could often recognize a drama by the first notes. The tibia is ubiquitous in Roman mosaics and in paintings depicting scenes from Roman comedy. Tibicen played instrumental pieces or accompanied songs between acts. The shin was indispensable in the comedies of Terence and Plautus as an accompaniment to certain polymetric scenes of dialogue called cantos; The playwrights directed the tibia to play or mute depending on the desired effect in the scene, and the tibia sometimes interfered with the action. Stage directions in Terence's comedies indicate what type of tibia was needed: even tibiae ("pipes of equal length"), odd tibiae ("pipes of unequal length", probably an octave difference), and tibiae sarranae ("Phoenician shins"). "). " ). The lukewarm musician who composed for Terence may also have acted as musical director. THE FLUTE AND THE PANFLUTE. The aulos has often been translated as "flute", but that is incorrect. played by blowing across the vent hole holding the instrument horizontally to one side. Most types of auloi were reed instruments played in pairs and held in front of the player, like an oboe or bassoon. One type of aulos, however, could have been played like the modern flute: the plagiaulos (Greek) or tibia obliqua (Latin) Like the other auloi, the plagiaulos was not of Greek origin, but came from Lydia, Phrygia, or after Pollux and Athenaeus (late 2nd century BC). .century AD) From Libya.The flute is rare and did not appear in Greece before the 3rd century BC. Two surviving Plagiauloi are in the British Museum; both have a small bust of a bacchante (worshipper of Bacchus) at one end. Both plagiaulos and syrinx ("panpipes") were pastoral instruments played by shepherds and shepherdesses for simple amusement. There are more artistic and literary references to the syrinx than to the flute. Although there are no surviving examples of the Bronze Age syrinx, in the Iliad (8th century BC) it is depicted on the shield of Achilles held by merry shepherds. The so-called "Vase François" (around 575 BC) shows a muse

A PIPER COUP IN ANCIENT ROME INTRODUCTION:

The tibicines were Roman musicians who played the tibia, originally a bone flute with three or four finger holes; Over time it evolved into a double-reed reed instrument like the Greek aulos. The guild of Tibicines held a festival every year on the Ides of June (June 15) during which they wore masks and costumes, sometimes women's clothing. The festival commemorated a strike by the Tibicians in 311 BC. BC, which is described in the following passage from Livy. History shows the importance of the flute guild in the Roman sacrificial ritual.

I should have omitted an episode from the same year as unremarkable if it didn't seem to relate to religious duties. The flautists (tibicines) resented that the latest censorship had forbidden them to celebrate their festival according to ancient custom in the Temple of Jupiter, and they marched to Tibur in a group so that there was no one in it. the city to play flutes at the victims. The Senate, seized with pious doubts about the incident, sent delegates to Tibur to ask the citizens to do whatever they could to bring the men back to Rome. The Tiburtines politely promised this and first summoned the Pied Pipers to their Senate and urged them to return to Rome. Then, finding that persuasion was useless, they treated the men with a ruse that was entirely their nature. On a holiday, under the pretense of celebrating the holiday with music, several commoners would invite groups of whistles into their homes and lull them to sleep by filling them with wine, so that men of their class were usually greedy. In this state, asleep, they were thrown onto a chariot and taken to Rome. The floats stayed behind in the Forum, and the flutists knew nothing until daylight caught them there, still very drunk. People quickly surrounded her and persuaded her to stay. For three days a year they were allowed to roam the city in disguise, play music, and enjoy what had become the customary license, and those who played the flute at sacrifices were entitled to hold a festival in the restored temple. SOURCE: Tito Livio, Rome and Italy. Books VI-X of the history of Rome since its foundation. Trans. Betty Radice (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1982): 259.

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A Greek relief sculpture of a woman playing the double aulos, on Ludovisi's throne, circa 450 BC. ART ARCHIVE/MUSEO NAZIONALE TERME ROMA/DAGLI ORTI.

playing the syrinx at the mythical marriage of Peleus and Thetis, but the instrument is more likely associated with pastoral poetry from the 3rd century BC. B.C. Although Plato banishes the aulos from his ideal state in the republic, he allows the landherds to have their simple syringes. In Greek mythology, the god Hermes is credited with inventing the syrinx; It is the instrument commonly associated with Hermes' son, Pan, god of shepherds, hence the term "pan flute". Later authors suggest other origins, including Pollux associating it with Celts and unnamed "sea islanders". The term syrinx (from the Latin fistula) was used to denote both a single-tube whistle and a group of five to seven tubes of equal length tied together and covered with wax at graduated intervals to form a scale. The musician holds the instrument vertically under his mouth and blows through the tubes as if it were a bottle. Later versions include a series of tubes of varying lengths strung together, or tubes with holes drilled to achieve the desired tone. THE ORGAN. The idea behind the syrinx (that scales could be created by blowing air through the opening into the tubes) was expanded upon by Greek engineers in Egypt during the Hellenistic period (4th century BC). Athenaeus, writing late second century AD, cred196

Drawing of a character playing double aulos.

CREATED BY CE

Zilia Evans. THE GALE GROUP.

is an Alexandrian mechanic named Ktesibios credited with inventing the hydraulis ("water organ"), which used a hydraulic pump to create a continuous supply of air to rows of pipes. The Roman architect Vitruvius (late 1st century BC) later described how "caps" were used to shut off the air from entire rows of pipes to change pitch. Hero of Alexandria, an engineer writing 100 years later, explained in detail how the hydraulic machine of Ktesibios worked in his book Pneumatika. The hydraulis, a complex mechanical organ, was not normally played, but there is an inscription from the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi that commends the hydraulist Antipater for helping him in 90 BC. won a music competition. THE TRUMPET. The Greeks and Romans played many different types of horns. The ivory, or more commonly bronze, salpinx ("trumpet") was primarily a combat instrument used to send signals; It also appeared in ritual and ceremonial contexts, particularly in Roman times where it was called the tuba and was often made of brass or iron. The trumpet blast took some getting used to

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from the earliest times. In Greek mythology, newts and conch shells were the instruments played by sea deities such as the Nereids and the mermen. The keras ("cow horn"), often fired to produce a brighter sound, was used in conjunction with the much more powerful salpinx to signal troops in battle. In Rome, military horns and trumpets, including the tuba, the bucina (in the shape of a bull's horn), and the circular horn, were featured in concerts by large choral groups and orchestras.

Roman water organ found in Aquincum, Hungary.

COURTESY OF

DAS AQUINCUM-MUSEUM.

Call the people to the assembly and start the races. Most authors claim that the salpinx is of Etruscan (Italian) origin, but the instrument is comparable to Mesopotamian and Egyptian trumpets. It consisted of a long, thin tube that could be straight or curved, with an orchid-shaped funnel or bell at the end. The glota ("mouthpiece") was made of bone. The Roman theorist Aristides Quintilianus (3rd-4th centuries AD) described the salpinx in his De Musica as a "terrible instrument of war" used by the Roman army to move troops by playing "codes through music". . Human and divine salpinges (salpinx players) were often depicted in vase paintings; in the fifth century BC CE Painter's Cup Epictetos, a Saytr holding a salpinx in one hand, a shield in the right, and throwing it as he runs; A phobeia ("halter", also used by dancing aulets) brings the mouthpiece to the lips. HORNS. Animal horns and shells were commonly used throughout the Mediterranean and Middle East.

DRUMS. Percussion instruments included the sistrum ("rattle"), krotala ("castanets"), kumbala ("finger cymbals"), timpani ("drum"), kymbalon ("cymbals"), and the kroupalon (Latin scabellum), a wooden or metallic touch used in a shoe used to keep time. The rombos ("bull's roar") can be classified as a percussion or wind instrument. It consisted of a piece of wood attached to a string that made a rumbling sound when swung upside down. Sistra, rattles made of metal or clay and wood, were popular in Egypt and throughout the Mediterranean. They appeared from the 2nd millennium BC. in Bronze Age art. CE, and many royal sistras survive: more than twenty have been found at Pompeii. Evidence shows that the Parthians, ancient peoples of Iran and Afghanistan, used percussion instruments, particularly large single-sided drums (rhoptra and timpani) and perhaps mallets, to frighten the enemy in battle. In Greece and Rome, percussion instruments were used predominantly by women to emphasize dance rhythms and poetic meters in the cult of Dionysus, Cybele, Pan, and Aphrodite, deities associated with fertility, fecundity, and sexuality. Female followers of Dionysus, called maenads, are often depicted in vase paintings dancing while touching small eardrums with their palms. In his 5th century BC comedy Lysistrata The playwright Aristophanes suggested that women touching the eardrums during the worship of Pan and Aphrodite could cause quite an uproar. Women also played the krotala, a pair of stick-shaped wooden or metal mallets hinged at one end and played like castanets with each hand; A frequently depicted duo consists of a krotala player and a male aulete, both dancing wildly. Krotala is also depicted as being satirized, excessively sexed mythical creatures associated with Dionysus. Kumbala (finger cymbals) are also commonly associated with female worshipers of Dionysus. These are small round mallets made of wood, shell or clay that produce a higher pitch than krotala. Many examples can be found in museums. A pair of Kumbala from the 5th or 4th century BC. in the British Museum is inscribed with the owner's name. The sistrum (rattle or rattle) was also a female instrument. shaped ladder

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Sistro de Bronze Grego (musical instrument), VI century BC from the necropolis de Macchiabate, Francavilla Maritima, Italy.

ART

ARQUIVO/MUSEU DE SIBARITIDE SIBARI/DAGLI GORTI.

The wooden version, referred to by Pollux as Psithyra, is regularly depicted hanging on a woman's bedroom wall or in a woman's hands in Greek vase paintings from Apulia, southern Italy. SOURCES

Giovanni Comotti, Musica na cultura grega e romana. Trans. Rosaria V. Munson (Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989, originally published in Italian, 1979). John G. Landels, Music in Ancient Greece and Rome (Londres: Routlege, 1999). Martha Maas and Jane Snyder, Stringed Instruments of Ancient Greece (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1989). Thomas J. Mathiesen, Apollo's Lyre: Greek Music and Music Theory in Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999). Martin West, Ancient Greek Music (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994). 198

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INTEGRATED INTO ALL PART OF SOCIETY. Music was undeniably widespread in all sections of Greek society. It occupied a prominent place at weddings, funerals and other social occasions, at military campaigns and especially at festivals. Music was appropriate for all situations, whether family or community gatherings. Once a musical performance began, it became common for neighbors, friends, and even strangers to drop by to take part in any of the activities that involved music. Music was also the main entertainment at symposiums, private after-dinner parties in the men's section of the house. Almost all types of these musical events have survived, either in works of art or in literature, that have survived from this period, giving modern scholars clues as to the extent of music in Greek life. EPIC POETRY. One of the first examples of music performed in public was to accompany epic poetry. the eighth century

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A mosaic depicting dancers from a village found between the 4th and 5th centuries AD in Argos, Greece. The woman plays the cymbals.

ART

ARGOS ARCHIVES/ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM/DAGLI GARDENS.

The Homeric epics Iliad and Odyssey are the first written examples of myth presented in poetic form; represent a tradition that goes back at least to the second millennium BC. dates back to Originally sung to phorminx (lyre) accompaniment, the Homeric epic was composed in stichic form, meaning that many lines were repeated in the same meter. In the case of the Homeric epic, that metric was the dactylic hexameter, composed of a combination of the dactyl (–傼傼) and the espondea (––). The melody was simple and conservative. In ancient times, the transmission of epic poetry was oral rather than written; The poet trained his pupil, and they traveled from town to town, singing at singing competitions and in the homes of patrons, always adapting their performance to the audience. REPRESENTATION OF EPIC POETRY. The epics themselves contain many references to his own acting.

Style: Demodocos and Phemios, two aoidoi (professional bards), sing and perform excerpts from epic poems to large audiences at banquets in the royal courts of Kings Odysseus and Nestor. In Book Two of the Odyssey, Phemios is praised by Odysseus' son Telemachus for containing the "latest song in circulation". Amateur musicians also tried their hand at epic lines, as the poem illustrates: the Achaean warrior Achilles plays his Forminx during a break in battle and sings to his friend Patroclus in the ninth book of the Iliad "the glorious deeds of warlike heroes". . From the sixth century, epic poetry was recited by rhapsodes, professional bards who recited excerpts from Homeric poetry in musical contests during religious celebrations, such as the Epidaurus festival of Asclepius, the god of healing, who acted as the mortal physician in the Iliad. . In Athens, during the Great Panathenaia held every four years in honor of Athena,

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INTRODUCTION TO THE PRAISE OF ODYSSEUS:

The first literary allusions to music can be found in the Iliad and Odyssey of the 8th century BC. Archaic epics attributed to Homer. The theme of these poems, the Trojan War and its aftermath, goes back to a much earlier period: the Aegean Bronze Age (Mycenaean period) of the second millennium, when aoidoi (bards) entertained the courts of ancient princes with heroic songs. , accompanied by the phorminx (a type of lyre). In this excerpt from the ninth book of the Odyssey, the hero Odysseus praises as the "crown of life" the good food and songs of the bard Demodocus, made available to him by his host Alcínoo, king of Faiaicia.

FUENTE :

Homer, On the Odyssey. Trans. Robert Fagles (New York: Penguin, 1997): 211.

Groups of rhapsodes were organized to perform the complete Iliad and Odyssey. MUSIC IN THE ARMY. Another early use of music was its necessity on the battlefield. The auleto (flute player) was an essential timekeeper for the oarsmen of Greek warships and for soldiers on the march. Bards and musicians entertained sailors and foot soldiers during the campaign and kept them in good spirits. Marching songs were played on the salpinx ("trumpet"), which was also used to signal and guide the movement of troops in battle. The hymn was sung during battle to rally the troops, as the playwright Aeschylus wrote in his tragedy The Persians: “O sons of Greece, come! Liberate the land, liberate your son200

Children, their wives, the shrines of their ancestral gods, the tombs of their ancestors! Now the fight belongs to all!” Renowned for their military prowess, the Spartans used many different types of songs and marching rhythms which, according to Plutarch in his Laconica institute, made soldiers brave and unafraid of death. The seventh century BC The poet Tyrtaeus used one of the marching knives known as the batteria when he urged the Spartan troops to march, shield and spear in hand, without thought of their lives, sparing no one. Epinic poetry. During the Olympian, Pythian (at Delphi), Nemean and Isthmian Funeral Games, athletic competitions were held every four years, often with music played and often used as a prize of sorts. The modern Olympics descended from such commemorations that featured many of the same events, including boxing, running, wrestling, horse racing, and pentathlon. Athletes from all over Greece took part and prizes were awarded to the winner of a competition. After the competition, a grand welcome party was held for the winners, and an elaborate poem known as the Epinikion was composed and performed especially for the individual. The well-paid poet praised the victor and his family, comparing his achievement to the struggle of a mythical hero or god. The poem could be re-performed on the anniversary of a victory. The Epinicias were composed for choral interpretation and, as the poems themselves reflect, were enriched with dances accompanied by phorminx (lyre) or aulos (reeds). The best-surviving Epinician poems of the late sixth and early fifth centuries B.C. are those of Pindar, of Boeotia. Four books of Pindar's Epinikia survive, one for each of the main plays; Many can be attributed to specific festivals and winners. Pindar's first Pythian ode was composed for a Hiero of Etna who died in 470 BC. won the chariot race. Pindar also wrote poetry for war heroes and musicians; His twelfth Pythian ode, written on the occasion of successive victories over the aulos to Midas of Akragas, contains a reference to the goddess Athena's invention of a "many-headed" melody for the aulos. Pindar was highly respected in antiquity for his brilliant use of image and metaphor, lyrical meter and musicality. Dionysus of Halicarnassus, Inhabitant of the first century BC. As a theorist, he praised Pindar's "archaic and austere" beauty and the variety of his modal systems. PUBLIC HOLIDAYS. As with the Olympics, music was used at many other festivals, and many festivals had music competitions replacing the athletic competitions familiar to Olympians. The ear-

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The earliest evidence that music was part of public celebrations in Greek life comes from the Bronze Age settlement of Ayia Triada on the island of Crete (c. 1490 BC); A fresco and stone sarcophagus show musicians playing phorminx and aulos during a procession and ritual sacrifice. Public festivals in honor of the gods filled the Greek calendar, and each region of Greece had its own distinct ceremonial traditions; these occurred at yearly or longer intervals and could last from one to seven days. Choral and solo songs, dance and poetry were central components of all festival events. The three main features of public religious festivals were the procession, the animal sacrifice, and the feast. The prosodium ('processional hymn') was sung to the accompaniment of aulos as people walked to altars and temples; When they arrived at their destination, the prosody was sung to the kithara (a type of lyre). Larger and more important festivals, such as the Dionysian City and Great Panathenaea in Athens, the Pythian Festival at Delphi, and Karnea in Sparta, included dramatic, poetic, and/or musical competitions. SINGING CHOIR. The festival procession typically included the dithyramb, a men's choral dance with musical accompaniment, hymnoi ("hymns"), and the anthem (an exhortation song sung and shouted together by men and boys). Originally associated with the ecstatic worship of Dionysus, the god of "altered consciousness," the dithyramb was passionate and tumultuous, a festival celebrating male sexual power and fertility. The seventh century BC The poet Archilochus proclaimed that he knew how to pour wine on the dithyramb, the beautiful song of the Lord Dionysus. Later, the dithyramb was institutionalized, and performances took place in the Dionysian city of Athens, organized by nearly two dozen dithyramb choirs of fifty men and boys each. Dressed in costumes, often topped with ivy, they sang and danced under the direction of the khoregos (choirmaster or choral director) to the accompaniment of the aulos. The names of various khoregoi (dithyrambic poets) and auletes (double sheet players) were inscribed on monuments. Pindar, Simonides and Bacchylides, poets of the early fifth century BC. BC, were famous composers of dithyrambic choral music; The historian Herodotus named Arion the person who first wrote dithyrambs in Corinth and after the 5th century B.C. Classified. C., Timothy of Miletus and Philoxenus are credited with adding more complex rhythms and melodies to the dithyramb through modulation and modification of the aulos. ANTHEMS. Hymns were often sung at the beginning and end of the festival in thanksgiving for the prosperity.

ity hymnoi ("hymns") were songs of praise to the gods. These may be brief eulogies to the gods during a procession, or brief introductions to hymns or epic poems. The hymns were written in the 6th and 5th centuries BC. Composed by the poets Archilochus, Alceus, Sappho, Pindar and Bacchylides. C., but the first hymns were part of an oral tradition. The Homeric hymns, so called because they were composed in the same meter, dactylic hexameter, as Homer's epic poems, were a literary genre performed by professional bards during a religious festival. They were long, lengthy, and detailed biographies of deities, explaining each god's origin, sphere of influence in society, and places of worship. 33 survive. The Homeric Hymn to Hermes contains a description of how the god invented the first lyre from a Chelys ("turtle shell"). The Hymn of Aphrodite tells how the goddess fell in love with the mortal hero Anchises and gave birth to his son, the Trojan prince Aeneas, whose descendants later founded Rome. One of the longest and most elaborate Homeric hymns is the hymn to Demeter, the goddess of grain and agriculture. His hymn describes how Demeter's daughter Kore came to be known as Persephone, wife of Hades, god of the underworld; The story of the hymn contains many symbols and enigmatic references to the popular mystery cult of Demeter, held in a large sanctuary in the city of Eleusis, near Athens. The PAEAN. A versatile form of music that could be sung at various public and private occasions, the hymn was particularly important during the festivals of the gods Apollo and Artemis, twin sons of Leto. Many hymns were composed by musicians and poets to honor Apollo as the oracle of Delphi. Two were inscribed on the wall of the Athenian treasury at Delphi, complete with musical notation. The 33 surviving lines of the first hymn from the 2nd century B.C. praising the glory of Apollo with offerings and music by zither (lyre) and lotus (a type of reed flute) and recounting the myth of how Apollo became the prophet Delphic killed Python, the serpent who guarded the prophetic tripod. Hymns also served as sacred song performed by soloists or choirs during the Panatheneas, a major Athenian festival held in Athens every four years; the Hyakinthia in Sparta; and other festivals in honor of the main deities. They can also function as deliverance or thanksgiving prayers. GIRLS' CHORAL SONGS. Men weren't the only ones performing at festivals. The girls were trained in choral music and dance from an early age; Before the 7th century BC This was the only "formal" education

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THE INVENTION OF THE LYRE INTRODUCTION:

The anonymous "Homeric Hymns", devotional songs honoring a deity, were performed as a prelude to reciting or singing the Homeric epics, usually as part of a competition during a religious festival. "Hymn to the God Hermes" describes the birth of this trickster god and recounts some of his many powers and achievements; his first feat shortly after birth is the invention of a lyre from a tortoise shell (Chelys); He then sings a song while playing the lyre with a plectrum, improvising "like young people do at party time, when they tutor and taunt each other" (presumably at singing competitions). The Chelys lyre must have been introduced to Greece during the Bronze Age; is in the art of the second millennium BC. represented.

QUELLE: Homer, The Homeric Hymn to Hermes, in The Homeric Hymns. Trans. Apostolos N. Athanassakis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976): 31–32.

cation open to girls. From the 5th century, vase paintings show women teaching girls to dance or play an instrument. Many vase paintings show girls and young women in long, simple dresses holding hands while dancing together in a line or in a circle. Girls' and women's choirs performed at family celebrations such as weddings, but also took part in folk festivals. Many famous poets, including Pindar, Simonides and Bacchylides, composed Partheneia ("choral dances of the girls") for public performance. In one of the best preserved parts of the Partheneia, composed in the 7th century BC. The Spartan poet Alcman, two girls are said to be the most charming and enchanting leaders of ten girls dancing in honor of the goddess of dawn. Choirs of young women joined the men to sing hymns to Panatheneas at the beginning of the night and dance on the Acropolis. In Thebes, girls danced at night during the cult of the mother of the gods. MUSIC COMPETITION. Four major Funeral Games, festivals lasting several days to commemorate the ancestral king of a region, offered athletes and musicians the opportunity to compete for prizes. from 202

late 8th century BC Musicians came from all over the Mediterranean to take part in the festival's competitions. Instrumental competitions were introduced in the first quarter of the 6th century; Competitors included concert lyre (kitharists) and double-reed flutists (auletes); poets who appeared with accompaniment (Kitharodes and Aulodes); and the Rhapsode, a professional bard who performed selections from the Iliad, the Odyssey, and other epic poems, introduced by a hymn. The vase paintings show these candidates on a small stage in front of a judge. THE WINNERS. In his poem Works and Days, Hesiod, a pastoral poet who was about contemporaneous with Homer (c. 700 BC), described how, for his performance of a hymn in the Amphidamas, he was given a tripod with handles, which he dedicated to the Muses. Games at Chalkis (654-652 BC). The names of many winners are known, including women: a zither named Polygnota of Thebes won, according to a book from the 2nd century BC. a crown and 500 drachmas for their performance during the Pythian Games. Delphi inscription. Among the male winners, two stand out: Terpander de Lesbos

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An engraving copied from a Greek red-figure vase shows a musical contest. A standing woman tunes her lyre and a seated woman plays double aulos. THE ART ARCHIVE/LIBRARY DES ARTS DÉCORATIFS PARIS/DAGLI ORTI.

and Timothy of Miletus. Terpander was a celebrated musician of the early Archaic period (7th century BC) and was slandered by Fercrates in a comedy for singing too many notes. It is said that while Terpander increased the number of strings on the zither to seven, Timothy added four more; An anecdote says that Timothy was banished from Sparta because he wore too many strings on his kithara during the singing competition at the local Karnean Festival. GREEK THEATER. The Great Dionysia Festival, held in Athens in March, was the most important dramatic competition in Greece. In the middle of the 6th century B.C. founded. by Peisistratus, the festival lasted five days and included three tragedies, three satyr plays, five comedies and two dithyrambs. Dionysia worshiped the god Dionysus as Eleutherios ("The Liberator"), and plays were staged in the large open-air theater dedicated to the god at the foot of the Acropolis. Here the tragedians, the most famous of whom are Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, and the comic playwrights - Aristophanes being the best known - produced their spectacular and timeless productions before thousands.

spectator arenas; Adaptations and revivals of these works are performed to this day. The tragedies were serious recreations of well-known myths, such as the Assesinato of Agamemnon, commander of the armed forces here at Troy, by his cunning wife Clytemnestra, or the fall of the Theban hero Oedipus, who unknowingly killed his priest and married her. Her mother. The playwright was free, within reason, to interpret these myths through plot and action that combined spoken dialogue between two or three actors and choral singing. All roles were played by men or boys. The oldest surviving tragedy, produced by Aeschylus in 472 BC. C., is unique in that its plot is not based on myth; it is about a historical fact: the bloody naval battle that took place between the Greek and Persian fleets at Salamis just eight years ago. THE CHOIR. The most important musical element in Greek tragedy and comedy was the chorus. Aristotle notes in the Poetics that tragedy developed from the dithyramb, the youth choral dance originally performed in honor of Dionysus. He adds that the tragic refrain uses melody, rhythm and meter in combination.

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A backstage aulos player with Greek actors from a Roman mosaic.

ART ARCHIVE/ ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM OF NAPLES/ DAGLI ORTI.

Nations composed by the tragedian who also choreographed and coached the chorus. Each playwright entering the competition was assigned a chorus of twelve to fifteen teenagers and a khoregos ('choirmaster'). By the 4th century BC, boys were Citizens of Athens who were chosen as professional singers and dancers. Aristotle explained that the choral performance consisted of three basic parts: the unemployed (entrance song); the estasimon, sung standing in the orchestra (literally "dance ground"); and the kommos, an antiphonal lament exchanged between the chorus and the actors. The musical accompaniment took over an auleto, interpreter of the double reed flute. In the classical period (480-323 BC) the chorus was given a character role; Playing the roles of senior statesmen, elders, slaves, sailors, even supernatural beings, they took part in the plot of the conspiracy. Her role was to provide a backdrop to the story, interpret and deliver the plot for the audience

a moralizing element. Like the actors, the choir members wore masks and their musical performance was enhanced through the use of dance and gesture.

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MUSIC IN COMEDY. In the fifth century B.C. "Ancient Comedy" by Aristophanes, the chorus was 24, twice the size of the tragedy. The group played people, but also birds, frogs, clouds and other whimsical characters whose main goal was to entertain. Vase painters illustrated the fantastic costumes of these choirs. Contemporary popular music such as love songs were part of the repertoire, sung and danced to the accompaniment of the auleto. Several of Aristophanes' comedies contained a parabasis in which the chorus introduced themselves and addressed the audience directly, speaking on behalf of the playwright. A musical, often comedic, celebration marked the end of many comedies. Finished the work of Aristophanes Vespas

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with a sort of obscene cancan danced by men called a kordax. In his last surviving comedies, produced in the early fourth century, the role of the chorus was reduced. The poetry of the choral songs was apparently no longer written by the poet or incorporated into the text; The word KHOROU ("choral song") was written simply towards the end of the piece or between acts to indicate the performance of music not necessarily related to the story of the piece. Aristotle referred negatively to the use of such interludes, which he called embolism. In the fourth-century "New Comedy" - of which only one complete work survives, Menander's Dyscolos - no chorode was written; Instead, the word "KHOROU" appears between the acts. The play itself, like the preceding tragedies and comedies, draws on the music and performances of the aulete and confirms that music in one form or another has always been a part of Greek theatre. MUSICAL INNOVATIONS BY DRAMATURGS. Thanks to a comedy by Aristophanes called Frogs, it is possible to learn a little about the poetry and music of the great tragedians of the 5th century BC. to find out. was noticed by other artists. By the end of the fifth century, when Frogs were being produced, the great dramatists Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides had died; In the play, the god Dionysus goes to the underworld to bring the best of the three to earth. A contest is arranged in which Aeschylus and Euripides tease each other about language, meter and music. Euripides describes Aeschylus as repetitive and monotonous, while Aeschylus accuses Euripides of using simple whore songs, foreign music, laments and dance music. Aeschylus boasts that his musical style suits his sublime and heroic theme; Euripides boasts that his realism makes audiences think. At the end of the play, Aeschylus wins the argument, but leaves his underworld throne to Sophocles, whom Aristophanes did not want to mock (perhaps because he had just died). In his comedy La Paz, Aristophanes praised the songs of Sophocles, which contained a variety of moods and more complex rhythms than those of Aeschylus. THE “MODERN” DRAMATISTS. The most innovative poets of the tragic classics were Euripides and Agatho. The music of Euripides was so popular abroad that it reportedly saved the lives of some Athenian sailors and prisoners of war: Plutarch reported that when the Athenian forces at Syracuse were defeated by the Sicilians, their captors released anyone who could sing a song. by Euripides. Unlike their predecessors, Euripides and Agathon used the chromatic genre of the scale, resulting in more notes and a larger tonal range.

SAVED FROM SAKE BY EURIPIDES Hymns INTRODUCTION:

One source of the popularity of the works of Euripides is an anecdote told by Plutarch (2nd century AD) in his biography of the Athenian general Nicias, who lived in Athens between 415 and 413 BC. led a fateful military expedition against the city of Syracuse in Sicily. The Athenians were defeated by the Syracusans in 413; Nicias was killed and the Athenian captives held in a quarry; Some of them survived, Plutarch said, entertaining their Sicilian captors with fragments of Euripides.

FUENTE :

Plutarco vive. vol. Terceira Trans. Bernadette Perrin (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967): 307, 309.

Although other playwrights sometimes used ritual lamentations of women in their choral singing, none made better use of this genre of song than Euripides. Almost all of his works contain a dirge, which is considered one of the most powerful and effective stage genres. Remarkably, of all the music composed by the leading playwrights, only that of Euripides survives, on two papyrus pieces from the early 3rd century BC. The first is originally from his play Orestes

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Mother's blood driven mad by the Furies, divine avengers of matricide. The chorus describes the horror of the murder and its aftermath. Whether this piece actually represents music composed by Euripides more than 100 years before the date of the papyrus (still an open question), it is among the earliest authentic examples of ancient Greek music. Only the centerlines of the text are preserved; both vocal and instrumental notation are present, as are rhythmic and time signals, revealing an expressive stichmiatic meter (傼傼傼–傼–). The notes indicate the Lydian enharmonic or chromatic scale mixed with a diatonic. While this fragment does not represent the actual music of Euripides, it is very much in his style: ancient writers commented on Euripides' use of scale genres, his varied text rhythms, syllable doubling and word repetition for emotional effect. , all of which are present in the fragment.

ORESTES INTRODUCTION:

One of the most famous of a group of musical fragments found written on mummified papyri is the so-called Wiener G 2315, which contains seven lines of a chorode to Euripides' tragedy Orestes. The myth of Orestes, prince of the Argives, who murdered his mother Clytemnestra to avenge the death of his father King Agamemnon, whom Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus had murdered, belonged to the Homeric tradition and was retold in several tragedies. The surviving fragment captures lines 338-344 of an ode sung by the choir in the role of the Argive virgins who saw Orestes veiled in his

Song of Orestes by Euripides TRANSLATION FROM GREEK TEXT

VIENA PAPYRUS TEXT G2315 OF ORESTES OF EURIPIDES

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408 BC Manufactured in Greater Dionysia. EC, and the second of Iphigenia in Aulis. Despite the fragmentary state of the examples, the style of Euripides is recognizable: use of chromatic lines, alteration of poetic meter, and doubling of syllables. Agathon, the youngest of the playwrights, won in 416 BC. his first competition. when Euripides was sixty; He is credited with introducing new dithyrambic modes and performing choral music unrelated to the subject of the tragedy. The music of Agathon and Euripides was influenced by "modern" currents a206

Ward of multiple notes, complex scales and modulations, its melodic complexity is described as anatretos ("crossed like an anthill"). The choral poet Melanippides de Melos, writing in the late 5th century, was credited with pioneering "modern" music in his use of multi-note anabolai, instrumental preludes to a dithyrambic performance. In the 4th century, the embolism ("interlude") replaced the traditional chorode in both tragedy and comedy. The tragedian would no longer write his own choral songs as an integral part of plot and plot.

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COMPETITIONS AFTER THE CLASSIC PERIOD. Agathon was in every respect the last of the great classical tragedians. From the 4th century solo arias and "star performances" became more popular, and the tragodos, a virtuoso interpreter, sang and imitated new material or excerpts from the great tragedies of the 5th century with instrumental accompaniment. Musical compositions were written for professional use, and some texts survive (two of which may be the Euripides Fragments mentioned above). Other music competitions were

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existing festivals, and the number of festivals increased, as the inscriptions attest. 279 BC A new festival called Soteria was established at Delphi in gratitude to Apollo "El Salvador" for his divine help in defeating the Galatians who had attacked Apollo's sanctuary there. Royal festivals were now held in Macedonia, northern Greece and Alexandria, Egypt. Professional guilds established in the early 4th century B.C. were founded, now sent their musicians, poets and actors from all over Greece to these competitions. The rise of the virtuoso singer and instrumentalist

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MUSICAL INNOVATION PLATE INTRODUCTION:

In Book Three of Plato's Republic, Socrates argues that certain types of harmonies (scale system) and rhythms are better suited to poetry and music than others; too many "sweet, sweet, melancholic melodies" will spoil the soul and weaken people. He also warns against innovations in music that are "contrary to the established order"; Simple melodies and melodies are best for moral education purposes.

Celebrations One of the earliest descriptions of a wedding march appears as a scene on Achilles' new shield in Book Eighteen of the Iliad; the bride is carried through the town in a mule-cart by torchlight, while the young men whirl and dance to the sounds of aulos and phorminx, and the hymenaeum ("wedding song") rumbles loudly. The hymen was sung during the wedding itself; it was strophic and often contained a refrain invoking the god of marriage: "Hymen, Hymenaie!" The song wished the couple harmony, prosperity and love. Another wedding song, the Epithalamion, was sung by a group of single men and women at the door of the bridal chamber. This bittersweet song marked the transition from child to adult, from virgin to married. Some of the same themes and metaphors found in the Epithalamion (marriage as a journey, the danger of parental separation) also appear in the Lamentations. In one of her many moving wedding songs, Sappho of Lesvos wrote a dialogue between the bride and her virginity: Bride: virgin virgin where have you gone and left me? Girl: I'm not coming back to you, I'm not coming back.

QUELLE: Plato, Die Republik. Trans. G.M.A. Grube (Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett, 1992): 87, 89.

Talist was alarming to more than a few people. In The Republic and the Laws, Plato argued that the sound of complex rhythms and melodies was detrimental to the soul, as were "new" styles of music over the years such as jazz, rock, and more recently hip-hop and rap music. . They are considered a threat to social harmony and stability. Plato and other writers complained that music with "too many notes" was vulgar and/or feminine. MARRIAGE. While the song was often used at very large social events, it was also used for smaller personal causes. A popular subject for painters, poets and playwrights, the wedding was a time of hymns, choral singing and dancing, wailing of women and lyre and flute music. The bridal procession from the bride to the groom's house was an occasion for great 208

BURIAL. Burial scenes on vases from the 9th century BC further point out that large public funerals for important people were expected and music was an important element. For nine days the mourning took place privately at home, but on the tenth day there was a public funeral. Each time the body was carried to or from the house, the mourners would follow the coffin and show their pain by crying, pulling their hair, scratching their faces, and tearing their clothes. The main public burial rite was the lament, performed over the body by relatives and professional mourners. The two terms commonly used in literary texts for "ritual wailing" (threnos and goos) represented vocalizations combining inarticulate screams with wavering movements and antiphonal poetic chants, often described in tragedy and poetry as "detached" and "not danced". . hymns, in reference to his sobriety. Vase paintings depict ushers performing at funerals, and later writers such as Josephus and Cicero refer to hiring up to ten professional ushers for large funerals. The goosebumps was perhaps a more private, informal, and spontaneous wail. In the Homeric epic, the word threnos was used for the goddesses' formal lamentations for dead heroes; may also refer to the lawsuit of professional mourners. In the Athenian tragedy, the threnos was pronounced during the commos, an antiphon between the actors and the chorus. The first literary lament occurs

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including an epitaph and an epigram with musical notation. After the chant, the owner signed his name "Seikilos, Son of Euther". The last line "He lives" might indicate that Seikilos erected the monument during his lifetime. A musical notation is inscribed in the words of the epigram in diatonic Iastian tones (scale) according to Alypius' tables: one note for each syllable, except for some words which have a short melisma of two or three notes. in one syllable. The song's meter is iambic, and the rhythmic markings present in the vocal notation clarify the duration of the notes. The balanced melody confirms the compositional patterns later described by the theorists Cleonides and Aristides Quintilianus.

TOMB OF THE SEIKILOS STELE INTRODUCTION:

A funerary stele (gravestone) from the 2nd century AD It was excavated at Tralleis, Turkey, during the construction of a railway in the late 19th century. The artefact was first published by Sir William Ramsay in 1883, but the object was largely unknown to the public until it was purchased by the National Museum in Copenhagen and published in a 1967 lecture by J. Raasted. It is now on display in the National Museum in Copenhagen. The pillar is inscribed with thirteen lines of Greek text,

Epitaph of the burial of Seikilos TEXT OF THE FUNERAL Epitaph of Seikilos

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I am a stone image. Seikilos brought me here An eternal memorial for all time

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in book twenty-four of the Iliad, when the Trojan prince Hector is mourned by three relatives: his mother Hecuba, his wife Andromache, and his sister-in-law Helena. No song or dance is implied, but the poetry of lament is very powerful in both praising and chiding the language of pain. The lament so effectively heightened the emotions of the crowd that Solon, the Athenian legislator of the sixth century B.C. the public execution of Threnos by women and many women of the 5th century B.C. The lyrics indicate that the practice of mourning by women was perceived as a political threat. Plato firmly rejected women's public laments, calling them unreasonable feminine expressions of mourning; in the Laws he states that the ideal legislature would ban public protests at funeral processions. In later periods an epigram, a simple, often melancholic or melancholy verse, may be inscribed on the tombstone. The only surviving funerary inscription with musical notation was found on the funerary monument of a Seikilos from the 1st century AD. THE SYMPOSIUM. The symposium (literally "to drink together") was an important social gathering for Athenian aristocrats of the 5th century BC. Advance payment. The party took place in the men's section of a private home; Wife and children stayed upstairs. The guests, lying on sofas, ate, drank diluted wine from large glasses, talked about silly or even serious things, played games and had fun. Entertainment was often provided by professional actors or singers and hetairai, high-class prostitutes who could sing, dance and play aulos. Guests can play the lyre themselves and sing their own renditions of well-studied lyricists and elegiac poets from the last century: Alcaeus, Anacron, Estesicor, Archilochus and Theognis, to name a few. Skolia ("drinking songs") were satirical, loosely constructed ditties sung under the influence of wine by each guest, who in turn received a sprig of myrtle. The poet Anacreon's skolia were very popular; he was considered one of the greatest Ionian (East Greek) poets of the late 6th century. Athenaeus in his Deipnosophistae (2nd-3rd centuries AD) listed 25 skolia and discussed their style. The symposium was a popular subject with vase painters, who filled their scenes with a mixture of fantasy and reality. In his symposium, Plato staged a philosophical dialogue during a drinking bout. In an unlikely scenario, the characters decided not to drink too much wine and let the piper go home so they could have a serious philosophical discussion about the "nature of love." It could have been a boring night if Socrates' friend Alcibiades hadn't broken up the party and brought some raw cheer to the night. 210

FUENTES

Thomas J. Mathiesen, Apollo's Lyre: Greek Music and Music Theory in Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999). A. Pickard-Cambridge, Tirambo, Tragedy and Comedy. Rev. TBL Webster. 2nd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962). —, Dramatic Festivals of Athens. Rev. John Gould and D.M. Lewis. 2nd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968). Martin West, Ancient Greek Music (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994). The Lives of Women in Greece and Rome: A Translated Reference Work. ed. and trans. Mary Lefkowitz and Maureen Fant. 2nd ed. (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992).

TRAINING METHODS IN MUSIC EDUCATION. Formal music education has existed in Athens since the early 5th century BC. known. Previously, people interested in learning to sing or play an instrument could learn with someone else informally, or even learn on their own. A professional bard would train a gifted student in exchange for room, food, and clothing. Repertoire and technique were passed on orally and by heart; It is unlikely that there was a tradition of teaching students to read music. Large choral groups performing at public festivals required training, organized by a choir director (khoregos), who may have also taught participants how to read poetry. From the 7th to the 6th century B.C. There were active musical centers in Sparta, where Alcman composed his partheneia (girls' choir dances), and on the island of Lesvos, where Sappho founded girls' choirs. In Sparta, a boy's military training involved learning to dance and sing hymns while wearing armor. SCHOOLS. Music and text lessons usually took place in the teacher's home, but by the late 8th or 7th century B.C. Professional music schools were founded. by Terpander and Thaletas in Sparta. After the 4th century BC A guild school, or academy, offered professional training around 1000 BC, where students from all over the Greek world studied choral and instrumental composition. Both girls and boys were educated, and some girls became professional musicians. Many Athenian vase paintings depict a typical school day, which included music, texts, mathematics and physical education. A famous chalice painted by Douris in the early 5th century illustrates this in great detail: a Kitharistes

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A red-figure kylix in Berlin by the painter Douris showing a music school. 5th century BC

("Meisterlyre") stands in front of his pupil; both hold the chelys (tortoiseshell eggs). Other lyres hang on the wall above their heads. To his right, a seated Grammatistes ("grammar teacher") holds a parchment with verses written on it, which his student recites while standing rigidly in attention. A bearded Payagogos, a slave in charge of the children, attends the class. On the other side of the glass, a student prepares to sing while his teacher plays the aulos (double-reeded flute); next to it, another teacher is writing on a wax tablet for his pupil. THE IMPACT OF MUSIC. Philosophers, theorists and even Greek poets themselves generally agreed that music has a profound influence on a person's character and for this reason the types of music taught in school must be carefully chosen. As a rule, educators prefer simple traditional styles; complex styles, foreign (not Greek), no. The lyre, associated with Apollo and Orpheus, was preferred to the flute, which accompanied the wild and ecstatic worship of Dionysus. Homeric poems or tragic choral songs were preferable to other genres of music. Pythagoras, a mathematician of the late sixth and early fifth centuries BC. B.C., believed that sounds and rhythms ordered by numbers were exemplary and corresponded to harmony.

ART RESOURCE.

of the cosmos This is explained by the Greek word for musical theory, harmonics, which contains the Indo-European root -ar, meaning "put together, fit together, be in sync". According to Pythagoras, the fourth, fifth, and eighth consonances were patterns of harmony. His investigations into the science of sound and relative numbers began with what later came to be known as "acoustic theory". EXCELLENT CHARACTER. The music teacher Damon, building on the ideas of Pythagoras a generation later, taught that each genre of music has its own character or ethos that influences human thought and behavior. For boys, rhythms and melodic forms should be chosen for their masculine qualities; Girls should learn music that teaches modesty and restraint. The chromatic genders of the scales were considered effeminate, while the enharmonic genders promoted courage and masculinity. Damon's focus on the ethical qualities of music, in turn, influenced his followers, including Plato, Aristotle, and the Roman writer Varus. All of these authors show a conservative desire to label, categorize, select, and even censor certain types of melodic forms. In the Laws and the Republic, Plato considered only two harmonies (modal scales) pedagogically acceptable: the Dorian and the Phrygian. Aristotle was a bit more forgiving, admitting that all kinds of music have music like it

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their place, even the lowest types. Not all philosophers adhered to the doctrine of ethos; The Stoic and Epicurean philosophers of the third and second centuries B.C. For example, they attacked the notion that music had a lasting effect on the soul. Philodemus, an Epicurean, wrote a treatise entitled On Music, in which he argued that poetry has power but music itself is simply pleasant. Despite those who disagreed with the Pythagorean notion that music was associated with cosmic harmony and therefore had the ability to affect the soul, the idea would not go away. After the 1st century AD, the ethos doctrine was adopted and adapted by Ptolemy and Aristides Quintilianus (3rd-4th centuries AD), who supported earlier arguments that traditional, rational, masculine melodic forms were used for education should be used, but others could be used .used. for educational purposes. different purposes. GUILDS. Professional guilds of artists and musicians known as Dionysou Technitai (Craftsmen of Dionysus) were formed in the early 3rd century BC. Founded in Athens and Teos (Northwest Asia-Asia Minor, now Turkey). In his Deipnosophistae, the lexicographer Athenaeus included solo instrumentalists as kitarists and aulets, and poets, actors, singers, and composers as members of guilds operating under a group of officers headed by a priest of Dionysus. They made artists, conductors and composers available for every occasion and arranged payment arrangements. In this respect, Dionysou Technitai was comparable to a musicians' union. These guilds also functioned as schools, offering singing lessons, musical instrument lessons, and lessons in rhythm and melody. Guild schools may have maintained a library of written compositions, but none have survived. SOURCES

Giovanni Comotti, Musica na Cultura Grega e Romana. Trans. Rosaria V. Munson (Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989, originally published in Italian, 1979). John G. Landels, Music in Ancient Greece and Rome (Londres: Routlege, 1999). Thomas J. Mathiesen, Apollo's Lyre: Greek Music and Music Theory in Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999). Martin West, Ancient Greek Music (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).

MUSIC

ROME LIVING

PRODUCT OF MANY INFLUENCES. Surviving evidence suggests that Roman musical culture was not unique and new, but a product of many external factors.

influences, particularly Etruscan and Greek. Long before Latin became the official language and Rome the seat of a great empire, Italy had indigenous peoples who spoke their own undeciphered languages and undoubtedly had their own musical traditions; Almost nothing is known about her. The Greeks interacted with many of these cultures and exerted a profound influence. Archaeologists have found imported Greek pottery, some dating back to 1000 BC. dating back. C., in the northern regions of Etruria, Lazio and Umbria, along the Tiber, in central Italy and in Campania, south. During the 8th century B.C. Greeks migrated in large numbers to southern Italy and Sicily, where they established permanent colonies. The Greek musicians, composers, actors, and poets who lived and worked in Italy eventually found their way to Rome, where their musical ideas, traditions, and practices were accepted by most if not all citizens. The native Italian traditions have not been completely replaced by Greek ones, but they are not well understood; only a few fragments of ancient Latin carmina (songs, poems) survive from Rome and Latium; these were monodic or choral and included ritual chants (e.g. Carmen Fratrum), epic-historical poetry (Carmen convivialia) - accompanied by tibia (the Latin version of the Greek aulos) - triumphal songs (carmina triumpholia) and funerals. Laments (neniae). The Romans enjoyed musical concerts, solo performances, and theatrical performances, which were mostly renditions of native Greek or Italian genres. With few exceptions, the Romans adopted Etruscan, Middle Eastern, and Greek lyres, double-reed flutes, and percussion instruments. In fact, after Rome, in the second half of the second century B.C. conquered Greece and incorporated the entire country into the empire. C., the ubiquitous Hellenizing (Greek) presence provoked fierce criticism from Latin writers and even legislators; Both Juvenal and Cicero condemned the excessive Hellenization of Roman culture, and Roman censors issued edicts restricting the performance of Greek virtuosos and the use of Greek instruments. THE ETRUSIAN HERITAGE. The Etruscans were a people who ruled the territory of Etruria and Latium in northern Italy before Rome became the central power. Archaeologists have uncovered large numbers of imported Greek vases in Etruscan tombs, showing that they date from at least the 5th century BC. BC, if not earlier, had a thriving trade with the Greeks. The fresco art of some tombs also indicates Greek influence. One tomb, called the Tomb of the Leopards at Tarquinia, contains a fresco depicting two musicians. One plays the tibia (double reed flute), known as the aulos in Greece;

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the other plays a lyre similar to the Greek chelys (tortoise shell lyre). Even after Roman rule was firmly established, the Etruscans had great influence on Roman religious practices and the music associated with them. Many, if not most, of the state musicians hired for Roman religious festivals and other state festivals were Etruscans, belonging to a collegium ("artists' guild") in Rome. ETRUSCAN INSTRUMENTS. The Etruscans played instruments comparable to Greek versions, but also others that seemed unique to them, and paired instruments not played together in Greece. On a relief of an Etruscan bronze situla ("cube") dated to the end of the 6th century BC. a musician playing an unusual m-shaped harp (or lyre) is paired with a fistula ("panpipe") player; The two musicians, both wearing wide-brimmed hats, sit facing each other in a formal concert pose. In Greece, the panpipe (syringe) was more of a pastoral instrument, mainly used by shepherds or for outdoor parties. If an image of an Etruscan funerary urn dates to the end of the second century B.C. is dated. Certainly the Etruscan tibia obliqua was a whistle played more like a flute than an oboe, comparable to the mysterious Greek plagiaulos. The player in the urn scene seems to hold his shin horizontally to the right like a modern whistler; The placement of his lips over the mouthpiece at the top of the tube and his fingering over the holes suggest the instrument resembled a flute more than a plectrum. This type of flute appeared in Roman art well after the 3rd century AD. The curved horns used by the Etruscans and later adopted by the Romans include the lituus, conch, and cornu, and they were more comparable to the Greek tuba, a straight trumpet, than to the Greek salpinx. Both the salpinx and the tuba were referred to as "Etruscan" by Greek and Latin writers, but the Greek salpinx was almost exclusively a military instrument, while the Etruscans and Romans also played their trumpets and trumpets in concert, sometimes in conjunction with the shin . . . . ("whistle") and kithara ("lyre"). GREEK INFLUENCE. Greek influence in Italy did not begin with the Etruscans in the north, but as early as the late 8th century BC. in the south. C., when large numbers of Doric Greeks moving west from the Peloponnese colonized southern Italy and eastern Sicily. Many Italian and Sicilian Greeks became very wealthy in their new land, particularly those living in the Sicilian city of Syracuse. Unlike Athens, which was founded in the 5th century B.C. had established a democracy, the political system of Syracuse was a kind of monarchy called "tyranny." These tyrants took power by force, but once established they could be very generous to the Greek army.

herbal teas, musicians and poets who admired them; the fifth century BC The Greek poet Pindar and the playwright Aeschylus were among those who received lavish hospitality at the court of the tyrant Hieron in Syracuse. The largest cities in Italy and Sicily had open-air theaters comparable to the most majestic amphitheaters in Greece (like Epidaurus). Greek influence on Roman culture increased after the First Punic War in the 3rd century BC. B.C. More clearly as contact between the Roman people and the Greeks in southern Italy increased. Musical instruments popular in Greece - bagpipes, lyres, horns, rattles - were also played in Rome, albeit in different forms and combinations. The Romans imitated Greek literary and dramatic forms; They adopted and adapted Greek architecture. Wealthy Latinos hired Greek teachers and doctors. Greek gods and mythical heroes were given Latin names but worshiped in a similar way. When the Roman army in 146 B.C. took Corinth. and bringing all the land of Greece into his empire, the Roman people had already been conquered by Greek culture. ROMAN THEATER. As in Greece, in ancient Italy, dance and dramatic song were central to the various rites and rituals performed to appease or praise the gods. Many of the earliest dances were improvised and accompanied by the tibia, the most popular wind instrument for dancers in Italy and Greece. The Latin historian Livy reported that in 364 BC CE Etruscan ludions ("pantomimes") were called upon to save Rome from a plague by dancing to special music played by a tibicen ("piedier player"). The Romans adapted this Etruscan dance and added a rhythmically varied song; The new compositions were called Saturae (Satire). Scenes on vases from Apulia, a region on the south coast of Italy, show that it was found in the Greek colonies in Italy after the mid-4th century BC. was a popular form of entertainment. It was the traveling troupe of tragic buffoons called the Phlyakes who performed satire and burlesque on a portable stage to the music of an aulet ("whistle"). The Romans adopted the Greek forms of epic, lyric, tragedy, and comedy, and music continued to play an important role, although very little is known about its melodies or characteristics. The musical compositions of the Roman theater have not survived. By the third century, Roman theatrical performances favored the fifth- and fourth-century BC revival. Greek playwrights, notably Euripides, Aristophanes and the New Comedy authors Menander and Philemon; The first Roman-named writer/composer, Livius Andronicus, was actually a Greek slave brought to Rome from Taranto and later freed. His Latin successors included the playwrights Ennius, Plautus, Terence, and others who flourished in the second century.

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century BC These Roman writers translated original Greek plays into Latin and enjoyed great poetic liberty, changing names, mixing scenes, and arranging storylines in a technique known as contaminatio; They also sometimes turned the original Greek's spoken dialogue into a song. ROMAN COMEDY. The comedies of Plautus (250-184 BC) and Terence (a generation later) belonged at least until the end of the 1st century BC. BC Among the most popular in Rome. His plays, like those of his Greek predecessors Menander and Aristophanes, were full of lewd and often lewd humor. Male actors played all the roles, even the "girlfriends" in the rough love stories. The Roman comedy presented the canticum, a scene presented in sung form with the accompaniment of the tibia alternating with the deverbia (recited parts). Choral singing, so central to Greek tragedy, probably played a minor role in Roman drama; The orchestra room, used as a dance hall by the choir in the Greek theater, served as a reserved area in Rome. Solo virtuosity was highly valued in Rome, and the Tibicen often gave a tragic or comic performance to an easily recognizable melody composed specifically for that show. The tibicen also interacted with the actors and the audience during a performance. Production dates survive, listing the actors' names, production dates, and the name of the festivals, along with some information about the original music composed for the plays. In one comedy, each actor was assigned different types of shins: "Same tubes" were assigned to "Maid of Andros", while the character "Phormio" required "unequal tubes" (possibly an octave apart). OTHER THEATER FORMS. After Terence and his generation of dramatists, comedy and tragedy declined in importance in Rome, but in 55 B.C. a new theater was opened in Pompeii. and the ancient pieces were played during Julius Caesar's funeral games after his assassination in 44 BC. listed. Mime and pantomime, developed from Etruscan forms, were in the Roman repertoire by the first century BC. popular; Pantomime was a re-enactment of real or mythical stories performed through language, dance, and movement, sometimes with shin accompaniment. Mimes can include choral and orchestral music using a variety of instruments: shins and other types of flutes, zithers (lyres), cymbals, and a percussion instrument played with the feet called a scabella. Comic and tragic solo actors like Comoedi and Tragoedi were in high demand; the comedian Roscius and the dramatic actor Aesop were celebrities in Rome. Suetonius, the biographer of the first twelve Ro214

male emperors, reported that the cruel and perverted emperor Nero was ironically a complete kitharode who also appeared on stage in costume along with professional actors. Latin poetry. While verses from the famous first century B.C. The Latin poets Catullus and Horace contain many allusions to the music and musical instruments of the Greek poets, there is no evidence that the Latin poetry was actually performed to the accompaniment of the lyre, as was the Greek poetry. Horacio composed a publicly performed poem in Sapphic meter for chorus to be sung by two groups of 27 girls and boys. Commissioned by Emperor Augustus for the Centennial Games 17 BC. C., no evidence of the song survives. The Latin poet Virgil, working under the patronage of Emperor Augustus, composed the Roman national epic poem The Aeneid using the same meter as Homer, the dactylic hexameter, and using themes from the Iliad and the Odyssey, but this poem was not sung or played. with the accompaniment of the lyre, as the Homeric epic had been in archaic times. ROMAN POETS AND MUSICIANS. With few exceptions, there have been no Latin poets comparable to Sappho or Nossi in Greece. Male poets such as Propertius and Ovid mentioned the names of Roman women writers in their works, but the actual poems of a Latin woman, Sulpicia (31 BC - AD 14), survive. There are six of Sulpicia's Elegies, totaling only forty lines. She was probably the niece of her patron Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus, a historian who was also a supporter of other elegiac poets, including Ovid and Tibullus. Although Sulpicia successfully used the stylistics common during the reign of Augustus (pairs, alliteration, and assonances), she did not allude to music in her poems, and her poems were intended to be recited, not sung. Some Roman women studied music seriously from a young age and made their names as professional dancers, singers and kitarists (lyre players); Girls as young as nine or ten could perform in public, as did Phoebe Vocontia in Rome. According to her tombstone (Imperial Period), Phoebe was an Embliaria, a performer during interludes in the theater. "Scholar in all arts", died at the age of twelve. Another grave inscription from the imperial period reads: "To the gods of the dead. Gaius Cornelius Neritus did this for himself and for Auxesis, the kitarist, best wife. Female artists were paid minimum wage for their craft. A papyrus from Philadelphia, Egypt, dated AD 206 records that a castanet dancer named Isidora received the following payment for a six-day wedding concert at a gentleman's house: thirty-six drachmas a day, four

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DOMIZIAN AND THE FESTIVAL OF JUPITER CAPITOLINUS INTRODUCTION:

According to the biographer Suetonius, Domitian, son of Emperor Vespasian, began his reign in AD 81. Encouraging festivals and religious celebrations; he also built many public buildings, including the Colosseum, where he gave concerts; He may have been popular with the people, but the Senate increasingly despised him and he was assassinated in AD 96.

A Roman mosaic showing a musician playing the water organ and another playing the curved trumpet known as the "cornu". THE GRANGER COLLECTION.

Artabas grain and twenty double loaves. The writer also offered to keep all her gold coats and jewelry safe and provide her with two donkeys for her round trip. Under Roman law, although actresses were admired, the social status of actors and actresses was low. Nicknamed "the tenth muse" by her admirers, the actress Bassilla "acquired fame in many cities for her various achievements in plays, pantomime, chorus and dance," according to her third-century AD epitaph from the theater of Aquileia. . MUSIC AND THE EMPERORS. During the imperial period, Rome enjoyed a rich and varied musical climate; Talented actors, instrumentalists, singers and dancers came to the city from all corners of the empire, including Egypt, Syria and Spain. Emperors enjoyed musical entertainment while eating, and many of them were good musicians. Theatrical performances in amphitheaters enjoyed great popularity throughout the imperial period. During the time of Nero, the mechanical syrinx (water organ) gained popularity. This ancient pipe organ is said to have been built in the 3rd century BC. invented. of Ktesibios in Alexandria, Egypt, was strong; It was designed for use in am-

Domitian put on many extravagant shows in the Coliseum and circus... In honor of Jupiter Capitolinus, he established a festival of music, horseback riding and gymnastics every five years, and awarded far more prizes than is usual today. The festival included speech competitions in Latin and Greek, choral lyre and lyre singing competitions, as well as the usual solo singing with lyre accompaniment. … When presiding over these functions, he wore boots, a purple Greek tunic, and a gold crown engraved with the images of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. SOURCE:

Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars. Trans. Robert Graves (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1978): 297-298.

Theater where you could hear it from the back rows. A 3rd century AD mosaic from a Roman villa in Germany. It shows a pipe organ with about 29 pipes placed on a wooden base in the form of an altar. Despite the lack of detail in the illustration, it appears that the instrument could have played a full two-octave scale in several different keys. Nero, who spoke Greek and learned to play the zither from a Greek virtuoso named Terpnos, initiated and participated in music competitions. Emperor Vespasian hired Terpnos, another kitharode named Diodorus, and the tragoedus Apollinaris to perform at the reopening of Marcellus' theatre. Hadrian, an accomplished musician, was the patron of the Cretan kitharode Mesomedes; Fourteen or fifteen poems by Mesomedes survive, some with musical notation. Large concerts by choral groups and orchestras were part of both secular occasions and religious festivals. Horns such as the tuba, lituus, bucina, and cornu, typically used in the armed forces, were played in ensembles. Rome was the site of many foreign religious cults; the music associated with that content

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Roman horn, a curved trumpet.

foreign melodies. During the cult of Cybele and Bacchus, the music of the Phrygian elymoi (reed flutes of various lengths, one of which had a curved bell at the end) was combined with melodies and dances from Egypt. MILITARY MUSIC. As in Greece, military music played a central role in Roman life. A variety of wind instruments sounded in fanfares and were used to signal military maneuvers in battle: kerata (cow horns), salpinx and lituus (ivory or bronze trumpets), cornu (round horn), and tuba (wooden whistle). Brass). The Etruscans used these horns as early as the 4th century BC. C. and remained popular for over 500 years, well into the late Imperial period (4th century AD). Archaeologists have found a real lituus in the city of Caera (now Cervetri), not far from Rome. It consists of a 63-inch tube with no keys or valves; it would have sounded a bit like a bugle but had a lower pitch. Bucina and cornu, originally cow horns but the latter made of bronze or other light metal, curved around the player like a modern sousaphone. The tuba, a straight flared trumpet, had a higher and more distinctive tone than the lituus. Horns like these were used by the Greeks ex216

The Etruscans and Romans also played them exclusively as military instruments at concerts, weddings and funeral processions. SOURCES

Giovanni Comotti, Music in Greek and Roman Culture. Trans. Rosaria V. Munson (Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989, originally published in Italian, 1979). John G. Landels, Music in Ancient Greece and Rome (London: Routlege, 1999). Timothy Moore, "Music and Structure in Roman Comedy", in American Journal of Philology 119.2 (1998): 245–273. Women's Lives in Greece and Rome: A Translated Reference Work. ed. and trans. Mary Lefkowitz and Maureen Fant. 2nd ed. (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992).

WOMEN

OLD MUSIC

WOMEN IN SOCIETY. Ancient Greece and Rome were patriarchal societies; Men dominated social life and

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political sphere. Women's lives were intertwined with men's in their families and a system of government that denied women an equal voice in public life. The general rule that women should not be seen or heard was enforced in the Christian era and beyond. Most of what is known about Greek and Roman women in music does not come from the women themselves but from the men who wrote about them and the male artists who depicted them in vases and murals. Only when a woman gained enough reputation (good or bad) to deserve attention did her name get published. The family was considered the most important unit in ancient Greece and Rome, and women were at the center of family life; They played an important role in family religion, presiding over all rites of passage from birth to death. The ceremonies associated with these rites gave women the opportunity to sing, dance, and play music in public. Women also took part in the state's major religious festivals, and some became professional poets and musicians. Despite the scant evidence of female writers, poets and musicians, there is enough evidence that women made their mark in music while amateurs enjoyed playing for their own amusement. MISSION. In the Greek Bronze Age, Greek women must have sung and probably played instruments, but they are not depicted as such. Mycenaean art from the second millennium BC. it only shows men playing phorminx ("lyre") and aulos ("double-reed flute"). As a rule, men and women in ancient Greece and Rome led separate lives. Women generally stayed close to home and tended to domestic affairs, while men occupied their time in their jobs or in the city's public meeting places. Even private houses were divided into male and female rooms. A vase from a tomb in Italy depicts a group of women dancing and playing various instruments in the privacy of their rooms. They also had fun and listened to music while working with wool, baking bread or taking care of their children. Hetairai, often highly educated and musically trained music prostitutes, entertained the men at symposiums (drinking bouts). Some religious rites and ceremonies were open only to women, particularly those related to fertility, and evidence shows that both Greek and Roman women sang and played musical instruments during these rites. INSTRUMENTS FOR WOMEN. While both men and women could be professional musicians, certain instruments were considered more appropriate for one genre or another. As men marched in military parades and moved more freely in public, larger horns and lyres were appropriate for them.

ONLY ONE OF THE GIRLS INTRODUCTION:

In his Life of Caesar, the writer Plutarch (2nd century AD) related a humorous tale in which a young man named Clodius attempted to infiltrate the sacred rite of women of Bona Dea (good goddess associated with Dionysus) by dressed up as a woman. hurdy-gurdy player.

Rome, 62 BC C.: Publius Clodius was in love with Pompeia, wife of Julius Caesar, but the women's home was closely guarded and Aurelia, Caesar's mother, made it difficult for the lovers to meet. During the festival of the "Good Goddess" it is customary for men to leave the house; The woman takes over and decorates for the feast. Most of the rites are performed at night, with much revelry and music. The night Pompeii performed this ritual, Clodius snuck into the house disguised as a young lyre. Along the way, he met one of Aurelia's assistants who asked him to play with her as one woman would with another. When he refused, she dragged him to the others and asked who he was and where he was from. His voice betrayed him, and Aurelia demanded that the rites cease and ordered Clodio thrown out of the house. Clodius was duly charged with sacrilege by the Senate but later acquitted. Caesar immediately divorced Pompeii, saying that a wife of his "must be above reproach". SOURCE: Plutarch, Life of Caesar, in Women's Life in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook in Translation. M Lefkowitz and M Fant eds (Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982): 292-293.

The women and girls played minor lyres, harp and aulos (reed flute). The wife of Ktesibios, the inventor of the organ, may have given concerts on it. Hetairai were hired to play aulos and chelys (a type of lyre) at men's drinking parties, while psaltriai (literally 'pluck') played the harp at women's parties; Certain melodies and instruments such as the aulos, lute and chelys were associated with erotic love. The barbitos (another type of lyre), the pectis (a type of harp), and the Lydian harp were popular instruments for women, and after the 4th century B.C. C., the trichords or pandouros, resembling a lute, appeared on the women's arms. Timpani (drums), kymbala (cymbals), and other percussion instruments were most commonly played by female worshipers.

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of Dionysus, the Great Mother, and other deities related to fertility and fecundity. POETS. The task of the Pythia, a priestess of Apollo in the Oracle at Delphi, was to interpret Apollo's divine prophecy to the pilgrim, and she did this by chanting the god's words in hexameter verse. Although this song is not poetry per se, it is an indicator that women in ancient Greece had strong poetic voices, even though Homer's professional bards were men and not women. Between the 6th and 3rd centuries B.C. However, some of the most famous poets and musicians performed. None came from Athens, perhaps because women's lives there were much more restricted than elsewhere. They were all highly educated and wealthy. Sappho, born around 612 BC. on the island of Lesbos she is the most famous of a group of women poets whose work has survived: Korinna, Erinna, Nossis and Anyte. Sappho's poetry was autobiographical, personal, and often erotic. He wrote passionately about the power of Aphrodite, the Muses and the Graces. She was an innovative poet, translating the rhythms of her native Aeolian Greek dialect into new melodies; his form of lyrical monody (solo singing), which scholars call a "Sapphic stanza", was intended to be sung with musical accompaniment. Sappho is depicted in a painting of a vase containing the tiny splinters and mentions the lyre and harp in her poems. In addition to monody, Safo also wrote compositions for choral performances. Fragments of their Partheneia (virgin songs) and Epithalamia (wedding songs) survive, but without musical notation. His choral works were performed by separate groups of dancing boys and girls. Admired not only by her contemporary male poets, but by generations of poets that followed, Sappho was a vivid representation of female feelings: once again, that love, something bittersweet and inescapable, seizes me. Very little is known about the other Greek poets, and only small fragments of their poems survive. The traveler Pausanias (2nd century AD) reported that Corinna of Boeotia called Pindar, a very important lyric poet of the 5th century BC. BC, more than once in poetry competitions. Praxilla, another 5th-century poet, was famous for her scholia ("drinking songs"). Almost nothing is known about Roman poets, although the social position of women in Rome was better than in Greece. Sulpicia (1st century BC) was the only Latin poet whose work has survived to any degree because it was included in a volume of poetry by Tibullus, a friend. 218

MUSIC CARDS FOR WOMEN. The philosopher Plato, in his work Republic and Laws, prescribed different melodies and rhythms for men and women, depending on the nature of each gender. Specifically, men should play “male” music and women should play “decent and moderate” music. Plato and Aristotle wrote that both girls and boys should learn mousike, the broad term for "music" that includes singing, dancing, and playing instruments. Plato recommended a three-year training on the lyre from the age of 13. These philosophers insisted that there were two kinds of women musicians: respectable and nefarious. In the 4th century B.C. By 300 BC education was more within the reach of women than in earlier times, and a clear distinction was now made between the repulsive hetairai (whore musicians) and other women who had been tutored by respected music teachers of a very high class. teenagers and were paid to play concert music at folk festivals. An inscription from 186 BC He recognized Polygnota, a Theban woman, by her zither, which played and recited during the Pythian Games in honor of the god Apollo at Delphi. He states that he has received a crown and 500 drachmas as payment. Roman musicians also performed during religious festivities. In Rome and much of the Roman Empire, every November musicians, singers and dancers performed during the three-day festival of the goddess Isis, who had a temple in Rome despite being an Egyptian deity. The performance included actors playing the roles of Isis and Nephthys in the mystery plays celebrating the death and resurrection of Osiris. In Roman Egypt, women artists were highly paid. A 3rd-century AD papyrus from Philadelphia, Egypt, contains a letter requesting the services of three castanets, probably for a wedding feast. The wages were fixed at 36 drachmas a day, plus four artabas of corn and twenty double loaves. WOMAN'S RITUAL SUIT. In ancient Greece, women generally lacked a public platform to express their opinions and feelings. Ritual lamentation—public mourning for the dead at a funeral—provided women with a safe outlet to publicly address issues of societal importance. Ritual laments were performed by an intimate circle of women close to the body of the deceased, and weeping and lamentation were combined with poetic chants and stylized movements. During a ritual lament, women could say whatever they felt, no matter how explosive or threatening; In the epic poem "Aeneid" by the Roman poet Virgil, the mother of a dead soldier's lamentation is so critical of the war that the men are ordered to drag her away.

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INTRODUCING HELEN'S LAMENT RITUAL:

Euripides, the musically gifted tragedian, was particularly attracted to the melodic forms of women, especially the ritual lament. In his play Helena written in 412 B.C. Euripides captured the musical power of the lamentation with its antiphonal response ("songs upon songs"), its melancholy sonority ("elegy without the lyre"), and the combination of weeping and chanting ("choirs to ease my sorrows to sing").

physical and mental pain. In Greek tragedy, ritual laments were often referred to as "without a lyre" or "without a dance" to illustrate their utter discord and sadness. Euripides, a talented composer and dramatist of the 5th century BC. the C.E., used to write complaints in his works. In her musical tragedy Helen, the Queen of Sparta laments her role in the destruction of Troy and wishes that the sirens could accompany her mourning with the Libyan harp, the syrinx, with lyres, and with her own tears at the climax of her own. "Suffer". for suffering, care for care, antiphonal chorus to suit lament” (164-166). The so-called Berlin Papyrus (2nd or 3rd century AD) preserves an annotated fragment of a dramatic vocal lament about the death of the hero Ajax, which appears to have been inserted into the register of the female voice. Traditionally in Greek and Roman theater all roles were played by men, but this fragment suggests that a singer, perhaps playing the role of Ajax's grieving wife Thecmessa, performed the lament. The Doric mode, the same melodic system used by lyricists in love songs and peanes, was commonly used for formal laments. SOURCES

FONTE: Eurípides, Helena, em Greek Musical Writings I: The Musician and His Art. ed. Andrew Barker (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984): 67–68.

before discouraging the troops. There were three categories of laments: the threnos, the goos, and the commos. The threnos was a composed lamentation sung, for example, by goddesses in the Homeric epic and the formal laments of a women's chorus in Greek drama. Goos, a more common term, referred to impromptu, discordant weeping performed by relatives and associates of the deceased. The commos was specific to the tragedy. Aristotle defined the commos in his Poetics as an antiphonal dirge between an actor and the women's chorus, which was one of the most visually appealing performances

Diane Rayor, Sappho's Lyre: Archaic Poetry and Women Poets of Ancient Greece (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991). Jane McIntosh Snyder, The Woman and the Lyre: Women Writers in Classical Greece and Rome (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1989). Nancy Sultan, "Private Speech, Public Pain: The Power of Women's Grief in Ancient Greek Poetry and Tragedy", in "Rediscovery of the Muses: Musical Traditions of Women". ed. Kimberly Marshall (Boston, Mass.: Northeastern University Press, 1993): 92-110. Diane Touliatos, "The Traditional Role of Greek Women in Music from Antiquity to the End of the Byzantine Empire," in Rediscovering the Muses: Women's Musical Traditions. ed. Kimberly Marshall (Boston, Mass.: Northeastern University Press, 1993): 111-123. Women's Lives in Greece and Rome: A Translated Reference Work. ed. and trans. Mary Lefkowitz and Maureen Fant. 2nd ed. (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992).

REVIEW OF MUSICAL THEORY SOURCES. The study of ancient Greek and Roman music draws on a variety of sources: iconographic, literary, and archaeological. The musical scenes, depicted on vases and frescoes, on sculptural decorations and figures, as well as on coins and precious stones, form a piece of the puzzle. an iconography

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HARMONICOI INTRODUCTION REPORT:

Aristoxenus criticized earlier authors, whom he called harmonicoi (harmonicists), for paying too much attention to mathematical proportions in determining scales and intervals; argued that these should be judged by sensory perception. The trained ear, he claimed, recognizes the unique functional quality of sounds; In his opinion, the dynamic context of music should be assessed empirically, not measuring interval sizes or naming notes.

The nature and order of harmony does not depend on the properties of the instruments...neither the auloi nor any other instrument will provide a basis for the principles of harmony. There is a certain marvelous order inherent in harmony in general; in this order, each instrument contributes to the best of its ability under the direction of that sensory faculty on which, like everything else in music, it ultimately depends. To suppose, because day after day the holes of the same fingers and the strings are in the same tension, that one will find in them harmony with their permanence and eternally unchanging order, that is utter madness. For just as there is no harmony in the strings save that bestowed by the cunning of the hand, so there is no harmony in the holes of the fingers save that introduced by the same authority. That no instrument tunes itself and that its harmonization is the prerogative of the senses is obvious and needs no proof. SOURCE: Aristoxenus, The Harmonics of Aristoxenus. Trans. HS Macran (Oxford: Clarendon, 1902): 187-198. Reprinted in Source Readings in Music History: Antiquity and the Middle Ages. ed. Oliver Strunk (New York: WW Norton, 1965): 31-32.

the image may show the position of a musician's hands or mouth on an instrument and the number of strings on a lyre or holes in a whistle; the relative size of an instrument and the material used in its manufacture can in some cases be reasonably determined by examining a picture; then you can make a guess, but nothing more about tone, tone and volume. Images can show what instruments are being played together, by whom, and for what occasion. Ancient poets, historians, lexicographers, philosophers and theorists, most of them Greeks, contribute much more to the modern understanding of the scientific principles of music and its role.

sic played in society and culture. Archaeological discoveries of actual musical compositions carved in stone or written on papyrus manuscripts and real musical instruments recovered from excavated settlements and tombs can either confirm or contradict what has been inferred from written and iconographic sources. Finally, comparative studies of the musical traditions of other cultures that influenced or were influenced by Greece and Rome have greatly contributed to our general understanding of ancient Greek and Roman music. WRITTEN SOURCES. The oldest written sources on music are descriptions of musical instruments, performances and musical forms in Homer's epics (8th century BC); in the poetry of Sappho, Alceo, Alcman, Pindar and others (7th-5th centuries BC); and in Athenian tragedy and comedy written in the 5th century B.C. was composed. the CE of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes. Historians, mythographers, and scholars writing after the fifth century attributed the invention of musical instruments and melodic forms to deities or to innovative musicians, composers, and singers. During the late 6th and early 4th centuries the philosophical schools of Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle were founded; they influenced all subsequent scientific and theoretical reflections on music. The best application of Aristotelian science to music is the work of Aristoxenus. Around 370 B.C. Born in Calabria, Italy, Aristoxenus studied in Athens at the school of the Pythagoreans and was Aristotle's best student. Aristoxenus is said to have written 453 essays on various subjects, but most of his writings survive only in fragments, cited by other authors. Two major theoretical works on music by Aristoxenus, the harmonica and rhythmica, greatly influenced later theorists. The Pythagoreans' mathematical approach to harmony is best described in a fourth-century BC book. anonymous treatise sometimes (erroneously) attributed to Euclid, known as Sectio canonis ("Division of Canon"). The title referred to the Pythagorean method of using a canon ("ruler") to mathematically measure the pitches of notes as a function of string length. The Alexandrian astronomer Claudius Ptolemy supported this approach to the acoustics in his harmonica. In the first century AD, the Roman architect Vitruvius contributed to the science of acoustics by applying the principle of sound waves to the design of a theater hall. Vitruvius translated Aristoxenus' harmonica into Latin and apologized to his readers for the lack of Latin equivalents for many of the Greek technical terms used in music theory. Much information about musical life can also be found in many non-theoretical works: Athenaeus of Crete (around 200 AD) wrote a dialogue on Greek symbolism.

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Posium called Deipnosophistai, in which he named, described and defined 25 skolia (drinking songs) along with their performance techniques; His contemporary, a lexicographer named Pollux, compiled technical terms, analyzed types of aulos (reed flute) and horn types (particularly the salpinx), and described the structure of Greek drama and comedy in his lexicon, the Onomasticon. Aristoxena and his followers. The Harmonica and Rhythmica of Aristoxenus were two of the most influential musical treatises. His discussions and explanations of intervals, tetrachords and harmony systems were particularly important. He identified melody elements and the three tetrachord genres: diatonic, enharmonic and chromatic. A series of important philosophical, theoretical and historical works written between the 2nd and 5th centuries AD. they confirm and expand the work of Aristoxenus, including the Introduction to the Harmonica by Cleonides, the De musica by Ps. Plutarch, the Harmonica by Gaudentius, the Introductio musica by Alypius. , and De musica by Aristides Quintilianus. These works provide valuable explanations of the Greek musical system, including notation, melody, rhythm, scales, modulation, consonance and dissonance, and the scientific problems of acoustics. Later, during the Byzantine period (10th-12th centuries AD), material on music based on earlier work by Aristoxenus and Aristides was transmitted in manuscript form. An important collection of this kind is the so-called Anonymus Bellermanni, edited by F. Bellermann in AD 1841, which contains the only surviving description of rhythmic notation. SCALE AND VOTE. Already in the seventh century B.C. talented kitharodes and aulodes (musicians who sing while playing their instruments) taught others to play and sing; They should have developed a vocabulary of terms to explain techniques and demonstrate techniques on their instruments. His students learned by imitation and practice. Dating from the 5th century B.C. up to the fourth century AD (and even later) the Greeks used the term harmonicoi to designate the teachers, scientists and philosophers whom they considered experts in music theory; The study of the basic components of music (notes, intervals, scales, genres, tonoi, modulation, melodic patterns) was known as "harmonics". The word harmony was originally used in Homeric poetry to mean "union, connection," so the modern word "harmony" is literally a "loop" of notes. The earliest use of armonia as a specific musical term occurs in a poetic fragment from Lasus von Hermione, an innovative kitharode (singer, lyre player, and player) who worked as a professional composer in Athens in the late 6th and early 5th centuries. . B.C. The line reads: "I sing of Demeter

Aristotle on Music Introduction:

In Books VII and VIII of Politics, Aristotle considered the construction of the ideal state with special attention to education and the arts. He argued with Plato's idea that music is more than entertainment; affects the soul. Because young people (and humanity in general) are encouraged to imitate what they see and hear, the character and quality of all tunes and styles of music must be carefully considered before they are chosen for educational purposes.

There is a natural distinction between modes, which elicits different responses from listeners, who don't all have the same feel for each. For example, men tend to be sad and solemn when they hear what is called Mixo-Lydian; but they are in a more relaxed state of mind when listening to others, for example, in a more relaxed mood. A particularly balanced feeling, midway between these, is, I think, produced by the Dorian key alone, while the Phrygian drives people into a frenzy of excitement. ... Music certainly has the power to evoke a certain character of the soul, and if it can do that then clearly it must be used in education and the youth must be educated in it. SOURCE:

Aristoteles, Politik. Trans. TA Sinclair (Harmondsworth, England: Pinguin, 1981): 466.

and of Kore, the wife of Clymenos, singing the sweet hymn in unison with the gentle rustling of the wind.” In the time of Lasus, a harmony represented a complete complex, including text, rhythm and meter, mood, scale and melody, the associated with a specific geographic region: Aeolian, Phrygia, Doric, Lydian, Ionian. HARMONIOUS CHARACTER. The precise nature of regional (or tribal) harmony is unknown. Plato in the Republic defines the character of two types of Lydian harmony as 'sad', Ionian and Lydian generally as 'good for drinking at parties', Dorian as 'manly' and Phrygian as 'inspiring enthusiasm'. In politics, Aristotle, who sometimes disagreed with his teacher Plato about the character of the various harmonies, agreed that Doric was "the most serious and fit for education"; described the Lydian as "suitable for young children", but agreed

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Turium CE). His intention was to present the fifteen tonosi, covering the range of three octaves and one tone, complete with vocal and instrumental notation in each of the three scale types: diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic. In the composite table below, the Tonoi ethnic names are listed on the left in both low and high forms. At the top are the names of the notes and their position in the tetrachord. The staff represents the conventional approximation of pitches in each scale.

ALIPEAN NOTATION TABLES INTRODUCTION:

The musical notation used for the fifteen transposing scales or tonoi (literally 'voicing pitch') survives in the notation tables of the theorist Alipius in his Introductio musicae (4th-5th centuries).

Paranete cro. diat.

TRUE

Paranete cro. diat.

Banal

Hyperbel

TRUE

the male witness

Banal

paramedic

Paranete cro. diat.

TRUE

Banal

cro dia lichans

Synemmeno

Mes

Hip

cro dia lichans

participate

Meson

Hypaton Parypat

Staple

Proslambanomenos Hypate

The Alpia table of all notes (and scales)

hyperliterat

hypereolisch

F hiperfrigio

hyperiastic

F F hyperdorisch

[Continuation]

CREATED BY GGS INFORMATION SERVICES. OK.

that the Phrygian harmony played in the aulos during the ecstatic adoration of Dionysus was too emotional to be used in school. Certain harmonies, such as the so-called "Tense Lydia", were more suited to women, while the 222

"Slack" Ionian and Lydian were smoother and easier to sing. Greek poets sometimes expressed a preference for one or the other of the harmonies. The fifth-century poet Pindar praised the Doric as the most worthy and

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Paranete cro. diat.

Banal

TRUE

Paranete cro. diat.

TRUE

Hyperbel

Banal

diezeugmenon parameses

Paranete cro. diat.

TRUE

cro dia lichans

Banal

participate

Hip

cro dia lichans

Synemmeno

Mes

Meson

Hypaton Parypat

Staple

Proslambanomenos Hypate

The Alpia Table of All Notes (and Scales) [CONTINUED]

Lydia 1

sixteen

17 18

Vento

Phrygian

Asian

Dorio

[Continuation]

He used Lydian in several of his Epinician odes (In Praise of the Athletes). Dithyramb (choral dance) Composers such as Alcman used Phrygian. The Mixolydian and Dorian were used in tragedy. Perhaps most clearly-

The definition of harmony is found in the 3rd-4th century AD theorist Aristides Quintilian's work De musica. He listed the notes of six overtones and added that there were other tetrachord divisions.

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Paranete cro. diat.

TRUE

Paranete cro. diat.

Banal

Hyperbel

TRUE

the male witness

Banal

paramedic

Paranete cro. diat.

TRUE

cro dia lichans

Banal

Synemmeno

Mes

Hip

participate

cro dia lichans

participate

Meson

hipate hipate

Staple

Proslambanomenos

The Alpia Table of All Notes (and Scales) [CONTINUED]

Hypolid

hypoaeolian

Hypophrygiom

von hipoja

F F

Hipodoriano

CREATED BY GGS INFORMATION SERVICES. OK. SOURCE: K. von Jan, Greek Music Writers: Aristotle, Euclid, Nicomacher, Bacchus, Gaudentius, Alypius and Ancient Melodies, Exist. Tables are attached. (Leipzig: Teubner, 1895).

used by the "oldest people" (probably referring to the 5th century BC): Lydian and Ionian 'time' (over less than an octave); Phrygian, Lydian and Mixolydian (spanning an octave); and Dorian (spanning an octave and a tone). He explained that each of these harmonies has its own special interval relationships, forming so-called "octave types". THE PERFECT SYSTEMS. The tetrachord - four connected tones forming a perfect fourth - was the fundamental 224

Building block of the ancient Greek musical scale. A connected series of tetrachords in conjunction or disjunction formed the so-called systema teleion ("perfect system"), first mentioned by Aristoxenus but defined and explained in the handbooks of Aristides Quintilianus, Cleonides and other theorists. A shared tetrachord is formed when the last note of one tetrachord coincides with the first note of the next; Disjunction occurs when two tetrachords are separated by the interval of a tone. Two tetrachords together form the heptachord (seven-tone system).

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Since a fourth plus a tone equaled a fifth, a pair of disjoint tetrachords was actually a fourth and a fifth, making an octave. A pair of tetrachords together with an additional tone above or below equals an octave (a fourth plus a fifth or vice versa). The steps within the tetrachords were all higher or lower than a tone. The eight-octave note names refer to the seven strings of the lyre, plus one, the lowest, which was added later: hypate ("the most important") was farthest from the player's body, parhypate ("next to") . "), lichanos ("touched by the index finger"), mese (the "middle"), paramese ("next to mese"), trite (the "third" from the top), paranete ("closest to join"), and combine (the "last") THE THOROUGH AND LITTLE PERFECT SYSTEMS Theorists have described two "perfect systems" "added low tone" before the hypato. Four connected tetrachords, separated by a disjunctive tone, plus the proslambanomenos, formed the systema teleion meizon ("greater perfect system"). Played in succession, the two perfect systems of systema teleion were called ametabolon ("perfect immutable system") defiance of a number of theoretical treatises and manuals describing and explaining the theory of these systems, their application to performances and the sound of music resulting from their use remains uncertain "positions of the voice".Later Cleonides defined tones or tropes such as note , interval, range, and pitch. Difficulties arise because writers do not always distinguish overtones of harmony; Aristoxenus said that harmonics already associate the 'octave types' with theharmonyi, and Ptolemy applied the term tonoi to the 'octave types', which are referred to as " transposing keys” which were used to solve the problem of different intervals. Cleonides' groups attributed thirteen tonoi to Aristoxenus; Aristides Quintilianus noted that "younger theorists" added two additional tonoi for a total of fifteen that survive in Alipius' tables of notation. The tonoi manifested themselves in three genres: diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic; Each tone began with a tone a semitone from the next and was made up of a series of tetrachords (four connected notes forming a perfect fourth). The middle five Tonoi shared the same regional names as the Theharmonyi: Lydian, Aeolian, Phrygian, Iastic, and Doric. The five highest notes were preceded by hyper (e.g. hyperlydian), the lowest five - hypo (e.g. hypodorian).

MEASUREMENT AND RHYTHM. In English, meter (or stress) is determined by the stress placed on a syllable. In the tongue twister "Peter Piper plundered a bundle of pickled peppers", correct pronunciation requires stressing the first syllable of each word; this accent determines the rhythm of the line, and any deviation would spoil the meter. Ancient Greek meter was not based on accent but on tone; an increase in the pitch of the voice determined the meter. Ancient scholars developed a system of written accents to explain pronunciation: the oxytone ("high") accent meant a rising tone, the baritone ("low") marked a lower or dropped tone (used exclusively at the end of a word). . . ), and the perispomenum ("circumflex") indicated a combination of rising and falling tones in a syllable. Metric standards in Greek and Latin music and speech were based on long and short syllables. Ancient metrics explained that the value of one long syllable (–) equals two short ones (傼傼). In many poetic meters these two quantities were interchangeable. Aristotle, Aristoxenus and other rhythm writers assigned proportional proportions of long and short syllables to each unit (called "foot"): – 傼傼 (dactyl) = 1:1; – – (sponsored) = 1:1;傼 – (yambus) = 1:2; – 傼傼傼 (peon) = 2:3; etc. The 2:1 ratio was dominant with few variations. Time was marked by stamping the foot: "up" or "rising" was denoted by the word arsis, while "down" or "step" was denoted thesis. Each measure (or "foot") of poetry was divided into "above" and "below" segments. Ancient composers got stuck with the meter types available to them, and until the mid-fifth century the meter simply dictated the rhythm of the verse. From Timothy of Miletus (ca. 450-360 BC) it was the elegiac couplet, a stanza consisting of a dactylic hexameter followed by – 傼傼 – 傼傼 – 兩 – 傼傼 – 傼傼 – 储. Iambic (傼 –) was mostly combined into the so-called metron 傼 – 傼 – which can be seen in many variants. A common pattern was the iambic trimeter 傼 – 傼 – 傼 – 傼 – 傼 – 傼 –; The first iambic formed the thesis (downbeat) and the second the arsis (downbeat). Many variations on this rhythm existed and were popular in spoken verse, as well as in poetry, tragedy, and comedy. If the first two note values of the meter (-傼傼-) were transposed, the so-called Coriambo was created. The opposite of iambic is the “triggered” trochaic rhythm (–傼–傼) which, when played in succession, always ends its meter with a rest (–傼–). Peonian rhythms (– 傼– or – 傼傼傼 or 傼傼傼傼傼) – also called Cretan – played in quintuple time were used in solemn hymns and war songs as well as in light dance music; They were favored by certain lyrical and tragic poets. The comic playwright Aristophanes often used the peonic, which could be toggled

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with trochaic meters. Among the surviving fragments of ancient Greek musical compositions are two Delphic hymns from the 2nd century BC. reveal an extensive notation that is almost entirely in Peonic rhythm. The last surviving example of the use of Peonian rhythms is a poem by the composer Mesomedes (sponsored by Emperor Hadrian) that shows three new ways of combining long and short notes. This is how the Peonian rhythm developed in the seventh century BC. BC From two variants. to seven in the second century AD The five-syllable Dochmiac (傼– –傼–) was a diverse rhythm with an irregular pattern, and possibly a combination of iambic, anapastic, and peonic forms. There is no evidence of its use before the 5th century, but it was popular in tragedy, particularly in highly charged scenes in Euripides' plays where it involved long strings of many short consecutive tones. The Ionian Rhythm (傼傼–– 傼傼––), first used by the lyric poets Sappho and Alcaeus of Lesvos in the 6th century BC. Songs Many variations of this rhythm were possible. The so-called anemometer was frequently used by Sappho and Alcaeus and other poets between the